CONNECTICUT

rugged, forming remarkably grand and picturesque scenery. The people are still almost purely Celtic. In ancient times the O'Connors were kings of Connaught. In 1590 the province was divided by the English into six counties, its present five, with Clare, afterwards joined to Munster. In 1874 the title Duke of Connaught was conferred on Prince Arthur, third son of Queen Victoria. The territorial regiment, the Connaught Rangers, once the ! 88th foot, now comprises the old 88th and 94th regiments (with four battalions of militia). Pop. (1841) 1,420,705; (1851) 1,015,479; (1861) 919,135; 1881) 817,197, a decrease due to famine and emigration.

Connecticut (kon-net'-e-cut), one of the six New England states of the American Union, is bounded N. by Massachusetts, E. Copyright 1889 in U.8. by Rhode Island, S. by Long by J. B. Lippincott Island Sound, W. by the state of Company. New York. It is the smallest in area of all the states, excepting Rhode Island and Delaware; but there were in 1880 ten states smaller in population than Connecticut. Its area is 4845 sq. m., or nearly two-thirds that of Wales. It is one of the most densely peopled states of the Union. A great part of the surface is rocky and uneven, and the Green and Taconic Mountains of the Appalachian system occupy a considerable part of the western extremity of the state; but the mountains here are all insignificant in respect of height. Much of the surface is not easily cultivated, and rather unfertile; but a considerable part of the valley of the Connecticut River is very productive, tobacco | being a leading product of this section. Hay, potatoes, maize, oats, and rye are the principal crops. Grazing and milk farms, orchards and market gardens, are profitably sustained in all parts of the state.

The Connecticut River, which, rising in New Hampshire, forms the boundary between that state and Vermont, and flows south through Massachusetts, crosses Connecticut also, and after a course of about 450 miles enters Long Island Sound, 30 miles east of New Haven. It is navigable for vessels of light draught as high as Hartford. In the east part is the River Thames, and in the west the Housatonic, both of which afford some naviga tion. But the greatest value of the very numerous streams is as a source of water-power. In 1880 over one-half the power employed in the manu factories of the state was water-power; and the utilised water-power was returned by the United States census as 12-63 horse-power per sq. m. The surface-rocks are mostly Azoie, with the principal exception of a strip of Triassic sandstone or pammite running along the Connecticut River. This brown sandstone is largely quarried at Port land and East Haven, as are excellent red and plain granites and gneissoid building-stones at many points; valuable serpentine and verde. antique exist near New Haven. Some quarries yield excellent flagstones of gneissoid character; the so-called trap rock, here really a diabase of Triassic date, is also wrought; and in the northWest good limestones of Lower Silurian age are quarried. Brown hematites are extensively wrought in the north-west section, and yield excellent iron. Deposits of lead, copper, and cobalt have been locally mined. Useful mineral-waters occur at various points. The climate is very changeable, and is rather severe in winter, but generally healthful. Nearly the whole surface was once richly forested; but no very extensive areas are now covered by large timber: still the aggregate production of wood for building purposes and for fuel is very considerable. The sea-coast affords a number of good harbours. Most of the maritime enterprise is now directed to the coast-wise trade, the whale

and seal fisheries having declined. Oyster-fishing is engaged in largely and very systematically, as is the taking of fish for oil and fish-guano. The manufactures of Connecticut are carried on upon a very extensive scale, and are of exceedingly varied character; and notwithstanding its small area, the state stands in the first rank as respects the amount and aggregate value of manufactured goods. Clocks, hardware, india-rubber goods, firearms, silks and other textiles, and smallwares in great variety, are produced on a large scale. Life, fire, and accident insurance, and the publication of subscription books, receive great attention. The state is well supplied with railways. In very few parts of the world has more been done for popular education than in this state. Private, denominational, and parochial schools of every grade supplement the work of this public-school system. The latter dates from 1644.* Yale University at New Haven comprises collegiate and post-graduate courses, besides medical, theological, scientific, law, and art schools, and takes a very high place among the seats of learning in the country. Mention should be made of Trinity College, Hartford, and of the Wesleyan University at Middletown. There are also divinity schools at Hartford (Congregationalist) and Middletown (Episcopalian). The state supports a full complement of institutions for correction and charity. Among the principal cities and towns are Hartford (the capital), New Haven, Bridgeport, Waterbury, Meriden, Norwich, Norwalk, New Britain, Danbury, Derby, Stamford, and New London. The old stock of inhabitants were of English Puritan origin, but of later years there has been a large immigration of Irish, German, English, and others. The colony of Connecticut may be said to date from 1634, when the movement began in which Hartford, Wethersfield, and Windsor were settled by persons removing from Massachusetts, and displacing a slender colony of the Dutch. This movement was in reality the secession of the more democratic element from Massachusetts. Saybrook, named in honour of Lord Say-and-Sele and Lord Brooke, was the nucleus of a separate colony which in 1644 was united to Connecticut, as was in 1662 the New Haven colony, founded in 1638. The Connecticut colony adopted a constitution in 1639, the first written democratic constitution on record.' The royal charter of 1662 was exceedingly liberal, it being essentially a confirmation of the older constitution; and it continued in force even after the independence of the American states, but in 1818 was replaced by the present state constitution. A large part of Long Island was for a considerable period under the government of the colony. Prominent events in Connecticut history have been the bloody war with the Pequot Indians, 1637; the governorship of Sir Edmund Andros, during a part of which (1687-88) the colonial charter was in abeyance, and according to the very doubtful but commonly received account was only saved from destruction by being hidden for a time in a hollow tree, the Charter Oak at Hartford. Slavery was abolished in 1818. Pop. (1870) 337,454; (1880) 622,700 (of whom 129,992 were foreign born); (1890) 746,258. See Alex. Johnston's Connecticut (1887).

Connema'ra is the name of the wild and picturesque district which forms the westernmost division of County Galway. Its interesting scenery, its lakes, streams, and inlets abounding in tish, attract many fishers and tourists. Connemara is

also called Ballynahinch.

Connoisseur, a term borrowed from the French, to designate persons who, without being themselves artists, are competent to pass a critical

judgment upon the merits of works of art, especially in painting and sculpture. The Italian equivalent for connoisseurs is Cognoscenti.

Conodonts, minute fossils met with in Paleozoic strata. They are variable in form, and look very like the teeth of different kinds of fishes, some being simple slender pointed sharp-edged cones, while others are more complex, resembling in form the teeth of certain sharks. Their affinities are very uncertain-some maintaining that they are really the minute teeth of fishes allied to the living hag-fishes and lampreys-others suggesting that they have more analogy with the hooklets or denticles of annelids and naked molluscs.

Conoid, a solid formed by the revolution of a conic section round its axis; such are the sphere, paraboloid, ellipsoid, and hyperboloid.

Conolly, JOHN, physician, born at Market Rasen, Lincolnshire, in 1794, graduated at Edinburgh in 1821, and in 1827 settled in London, where he was for two years professor of the Practice of Medicine in University College. In 1839 he was appointed resident physician to the Asylum for the Insane at Hanwell; this post he held till 1844, and afterwards he was retained as visiting physician. Here, under Conolly, all forms of mechanical restraint were from the first entirely discontinued; and although his views were admittedly not original, it is mainly to his earnestness and eloquence that the revolution in asylum management in England is due. His best works are those on the Construction and Government of Lunatic Asylums (1847), and kindred subjects. He died 5th March 1866. See the Memoir by Sir James Clark (1869). Conquest. In the law of succession in Scotland heritable property acquired during the lifetime of the deceased, by purchase, donation, or excambion, was called Conquest, in opposition to that to which he has succeeded, which is called Heritage. The distinction was abolished by the Conveyancing Act, 1874. Conquest, in a marriage-contract, is property acquired by the husband during the marriage as distinguished from what he possessed before the marriage. Such property was frequently but is now rarely settled either on the heir or on the issue of the marriage.

Conquistadores (Span., conquerors') is a collective term for the Spanish conquerors of America, such as Cortes, Balboa, Pizarro. See the articles under their names; as also MEXICO, PERU, &c.

Conrad, or KONRAD I., king of the Germans, was the son of the Count of Franconia, and the nephew of the Emperor Arnulf. He was elected king (practically emperor of Germany) on the extinction of the direct line of the Carlovingians in 911 A.D. He gradually re-established the imperial authority over most of the German princes, carried on an unsuccessful war with France, and at last fell mortally wounded at Quedlinburg (918), in a battle with the Hungarians, who had repeatedly

invaded his dominions. See GERMANY.

Conrad II., king of the Germans, and Roman emperor, was elected after the extinction of the Saxon imperial family in 1024. He was the son of Henry, Duke of Franconia, and is by many considered as the founder of the Franconian dynasty. Immediately after his election he commenced a tour through Germany to administer justice. In 1026 he crossed the Alps, chastised ? rebellious Italians, was crowned at Milan a of Italy, and he and his wife Gisela were emperor and empress of the Romans by t He was soon recalled to Germany to p four formidable revolts, in which he sud well that by 1033 peace was restored. I.

CONRADIN

had succeeded to the kingdom of Burgundy, which he annexed to the empire. In 1036 a rebellion in Italy again compelled him to cross the Alps; but his efforts to restore his authority were this time unsuccessful, and he was forced to grant various privileges to his Italian subjects. Shortly after his return he died at Utrecht, 4th June 1039. Conrad was one of the most remarkable of the earlier monarchs of Germany. He reduced the dangerous power of the great dukes of the empire, and defended the rights of the humbler people against oppression by the nobility.

He was

Conrad III., king of the Germans, the founder of the Hohenstaufen (q.v.) dynasty, was the son of Frederick of Swabia, and was born in 1093. While under twenty years of age, Conrad, with his elder brother Frederick, had bravely supported Henry V. against his numerous enemies, and in return that monarch granted Conrad the investiture of the duchy of Franconia. He subsequently contested Saxony, but was compelled to resign his prethe crown of Italy with the Emperor Lothaire of tensions. On the death of Lothaire, the princes of Germany, fearing the increasing preponderance of the Guelph party, and attracted by his brilliant courage, moderation, and goodness, offered Conrad the crown, and he was accordingly crowned at immediately involved in a quarrel with Henry the Aix-la-Chapelle, 21st February 1138. Proud, Duke of Bavaria and Saxony, and head of the Guelph party in Germany; and the struggle was continued under Henry's son and successor, Henry the Lion (q.v., and see GUELPHS AND vulsed, the state of Italy was not a whit more GHIBELLINES). While Germany was thus conpeaceable. The several belligerents besought Conrad's assistance, but he well knew the natural inconstancy of the Italians, and determined to stand aloof. Soon after this St Bernard of Clairvaux commenced to preach a new crusade, and Conrad, seized with the general infatuation, set out for Palestine at the head of a large army (see CRUSADES). A new attempt by the Duke of Bavaria to regain his dukedom was defeated by the nephew of Conrad, whose health had broken during the crusade. Conrad died at Bamberg in 1152. See GERMANY.

the imperial House of Hohenstaufen (q.v.), was Conradin OF SWABIA, the last descendant of the son of Conrad IV. (1237-54), and was born in 1252, two years before his father's death. His uncle Manfred (q.v.) had assumed the crown of Sicily on a rumour of Conradin's death, though he declared himself ready to give it up to the rightful heir. But Pope Clement VI.'s hatred of the Hohenstaufens led him to offer the crown of the Two Sicilies to Charles of Anjou, a consummate warrior and able politician. Charles immediately invaded Italy, and met his antagonist at Benevento, where the defeat and death of Manfred, in 1266, gave him undisturbed possession of the kingdom. But the Neapolitans, detesting their new master, sent deputies to Bavaria to invite Conradin, then in his 16th year, to come and assert his hereditary rights. Conradin accordingly made his appearance in Italy at the head of 10,000 men, and being joined by the Neapolitans in large numbers, gained several victories over the French, but was finally defeated near Tagliacozzo, 22d August 1268, and Don prisoner along with Frederick of Baden and

The two unfortunate princes ent of the pope, evented in the s on the ⚫tober. A executio

glove, and

gage of ve Carried to h

in, on the into the aquest

CONRAD VON WÜRZBURG

Aragon. The tragic tale has furnished materials for many poets. See SICILIAN VESPERS; also Del Giudice, La Condanna di Corradino (Naples, 1876).

Conrad von Würzburg, one of the most celebrated poets of the middle ages, died at Basel in 1287. Conrad is fertile in imagination, learned, and although marking the decline of Middle High-German poetry by his prolix and artificial style--probably the most perfect master of German versification that had appeared up to his own day. His last poem, which he left in an unfinished condition, has for its subject The Trojan War. But Conrad appears to most advantage in his smaller narrative poems, of which the best are Engelhart, Otto, Der Welt Lohn, Silvester, Alexius, Der Scharanritter, and Die Goldene Schmiede. His Lieder have been edited by Bartsch (1870).

Consalvi, ERCOLE, CARDINAL, a distinguished reformer of abuses in the Papal States, was born at Rome, June 8, 1757. He was made cardinal and secretary of state by Pope Pius VII., and in this capacity concluded the concordat with Napoleon in 11. His staunch maintenance of the rights of his own sovereign against the insidious encroachments of France offended Napoleon. He was the papal representative at the Congress of Vienna, and secured the restoration of the Papal States. As papal secretary he reformed numerous abuses, suppressing all monopolies, feudal taxes, and exclusive rights. He was a liberal patron of science, but especially of the fine arts, and employed his leisure in the study of literature and music. In diplomacy he displayed great address, and was generally successful. He died in Rome, January 24, 1824.

Consanguinity (Lat. con, together,' and sanquis, blood'), the relationship which subsists between persons who are of the same blood. It is either direct, which is the relationship between ascendants and descendants, or collateral, between persons sprung from a common ancestor. In the direct line, a son is said to stand in the first degree to his father; a grandson, in the second degree to his grandfather; and so on.-Affinity (q.v.) is the relationship brought about by marriage between a husband and the blood-relations of his wife, or between a wife and the blood-relations of her husband.

Consanguinity and affinity have been in all parts of the world more or less looked on as impediments to marriage between the parties related. Among the ancient Persians and Egyptians, marriages were sometimes sanctioned between brother and sister, and even father and daughter; and in the book of Genesis we read of Abraham marrying his half-sister.

The Roman law prohibited marriage between ascendants and descendants, a prohibition extended to relations by adoption. In the collateral line, the prohibited degrees included brother and sister, and all cases where one party stood in loco parentis to the other, as uncle and niece. Marriage between cousins german, at one time prohibited, was de. elared lawful by Arcadius and Honorius. The degrees prohibited in consanguinity were by Constantine also prohibited in affinity.

By the old canon law and early decretals, marriages were prohibited between persons as far removed as the seventh degree of consanguinity or affinity. The fourth council of Lateran, 1215 A.D., narrowed the prohibition from the seventh to the four** gree; ie. the grandchildren of cousinsA marriage between persons related in ways was accounted incestuous, and -tards. The pope assumed the right ensations from impediments to i

|

marriage arising from consanguinity and affinity, a power which seems to have been first exercised in the 12th century.

In the countries which embraced the Reforma

tion, a general relaxation took place in the prohibitions to marriage from consanguinity and affinity. In England, an act of 1547 allowed all persons to marry who were not prohibited by the Levitical law; and according to the interpretation put on this statute, the prohibitions included all relations in the direct line, brother and sister, and collaterals, when one party is brother or sister to the direct ascendant or descendant of the other; the degrees prohibited in consanguinity being equally prohibited in affinity. In Scotland, acts of 1567, professing to take the Levitical law as the standard, assimilated the prohibitions from consanguinity and affinity to those of England. In France, the Code Napoléon prohibits marriage between ascendants and descendants lawful or natural, and persons similarly connected by affinity; and in the collateral line between brothers and sisters lawful or natural, and persons similarly connected by affinity. Marriage between uncle and niece, and aunt and nephew, is also prohibited. In various countries of Europe, as Denmark, no prohibitions from affinity, except in the direct line, are recognised. In most of the United States of America, marriage is allowed between uncle and niece. See AFFINITY, DECEASED WIFE'S SISTER; and for exogamy and curious savage methods of counting relationship, MARRIAGE.

On the much-vexed question whether the mar riage of relations tends to injure the constitution of their offspring, either by the intensification of hereditary taint or more directly, see The Marriage of Near Kin (2d ed. 1888), by A. H. Huth (who takes the negative view), and the bibliography there given of works on both sides of the question. See also BREED, Cattle.

Conscience. See ETHICS.

Conscience, HENDRIK, a popular Flemish novelist, was born December 3, 1812, at Antwerp. His father, the inspector of the dockyards there, was a native of Besançon, but his mother was of Flemish birth. At fifteen the boy had to shift for his living as an under-master in a school, but at the outbreak of the revolution in 1830 he joined the Belgian ranks, and served till 1836. Patriotism and poverty together impelled him to write, and between them produced in 1837 his first volume in Flemish, In't Wonderjaer, 1566. Wappers the painter finally got him appointed in 1841 to an office in the Antwerp Academy, which he continued to fill until 1854. Three years later he received a place in the local administration of Courtrai, and became in 1866 director of the Wiertz Museum at Brussels. Here he died, September 10, 1883. His Phantazy (1837), a fine collection of tales, and his most popular romance, De Leeuw van Vlaenderen (1838), early made his name dear to his fellow-countrymen; but it was his series of charming pictures of quiet Flemish life, beginning with the little book, Hoc men schilder wordt (1843), that, through French, German, and English translations, carried his fame over Europe. Amongst those translated into English, besides the Lion of Flanders, are Blind Rosa, Ricketicketuck, The Poor Gentleman, The Miser, and The Demon of Gold, The historical accuracy of his Geschiedenis van Belgien (1845) was somewhat impaired by his Catholic predilections. The vast popularity of Conscience's novels depended mainly on the unflagging vigour and interest of the incidents in which they abounded, although these often enough defied all historical consistency and verisimilitude alike. It should be remembered to his credit, as, indeed, it

was his own proudest boast, that in his hundred volumes he had never painted vice in seductive colours. A complete collection of his works appeared at Antwerp in 10 volumes, 1867-80; a German translation of the same at Münster in 75 small volumes, 1846-84. See his Life, in French, by Cekhoud (Brussels, 1881).

CONSCRIPTION

Consciousness. This is the most comprehensive term employed in designating the mind. In the widest and most unexceptionable meaning, consciousness is a term which includes all mental states, operations, or processes, and, as has been truly said, it is not strictly susceptible of definition, seeing that we can have no experience of the unconscious. We may specify different modes or varieties of consciousness, such as thoughts, feelings, and volitions; but the quality in which they all agree, and which constitutes them mental facts or states of consciousness, cannot be otherwise explained than by a mere reference to the constant experience of every human being. Consciousness, in this its strict sense, thus embraces the whole field of mental experience, and the expression 'facts of consciousness' is frequently used as synonymous with psychical facts or facts of mind to designate the subject-matter of psychology.

Popularly, therefore, when we are mentally alive, or performing any of the recognised functions of the mind, we are said to be conscious; while the total cessation of every mental energy is described by the term 'unconsciousness,' among other phrases. In dreamless sleep, in stupor, fainting, and under the influence of the anesthetic drugs, we are unconscious; in waking, or rallying into renewed mental activity, we are said to become conscious.

The difficulties of the subject, however, have prevented a perfectly definite and uniform usage from being adhered to. As the mind in its waking or active condition may be more or less excited, or vary in the intensity of its manifestations, there are degrees of consciousness; and, accordingly, the name is apt to be applied to denote the higher degrees in opposition to the lower. Thus, in first learning to write, to cast up sums, to play on an instrument, or to ride a bicycle, our mind is put very much on the stretch; in other words, we are very much excited or highly conscious. But when years of incessant practice have consummated the process into a fullformed habit, a very small amount of mental attention is involved; and we may then be said to perform the work all but unconsciously. Such habitual actions are frequently designated secondarily automatic, and Sir W. Hamilton, for example, speaks in this connection of unconscious mental modifications.' But as he has previously defined consciousness as co-extensive with all mental phenomena, such a phrase evidently involves a contradiction in terms, being equivalent to unconscious consciousness. It is explained, though not justified, by the (unavowed) double use of the term consciousness just adverted to. Later writers have sought to escape from this inconvenient terminology by speaking of the more obscure mental processes as 'sub-conscious.' Stress is laid by

Consciousness is sometimes used in a special sense to denote the mind's cognisance of itself, as opposed to the cognisance or examination of the outer world. Hence, in studying our own minds, we are said to be using consciousness as the instru ment; but in studying minerals or plants, we resort to external observation by the senses. A contrast is thus instituted between consciousness and observation, which contrast gives to the former word a peculiarly contracted meaning; for in the wide sense above described, observation is truly an act of consciousness. But such a usage is confusing and undesirable, and has been generally abandoned by accurate writers. The study of our own mind may be more appropriately expressed by such phrases as self-consciousness,' 'reflection,' or 'introspection.'

Important philosophical points are involved in the determination of the conditions of consciousness, or the circumstances attendant on the manifestation of mental energy. The most general and fundamental condition of our becoming conscious is difference or change. The even continuance of one impression tends to unconsciousness; and there are a number of facts that show that if an influence were present in one unvarying degree from the first moment of life to the last, that influence would be to our feeling and knowledge as if it did not exist at all. This condition of our mental life has been formulated by Professor Bain as the Law of Relativity. For the varieties or divisions of our conscious states, see MIND. See also PERSONALITY.

Conscription has been defined as the call to military service by the drawing of lots, a certain annual contingent of men for the army being selected by lot from the youths who have reached military age, while a man with sufficient means has the right to buy himself off, or pay for a substi tute. This system obtained in France, with intervals, from 1798 until 1872, when substitutes were abolished and personal military service made oblig atory upon every Frenchman not physically incapacitated. All such must enter the army at the age of twenty; but those who choose to enlist may do so at eighteen. The term, originally twenty years, was extended by the Military Bill of 1888 to twenty-five-viz. three in the regular army, six and a half in the army reserve, six in the territorial army (militia), and nine and a half in the territorial reserve. At forty-five years of age liability to service ceases. A register is kept of the number of youths in France who reach the age of twenty in each year (about 280,000). All under 5 feet 2 inches in height are exempt: also any whose natural infirmities unfit them for active service; the eldest of a family of orphans; the only son of a widow, or of disabled fathers, or of fathers above seventy years of age; and the pupils at certain colleges. Moreover, if the younger of two | brothers is efficient, the elder is exempt; and if of two only brothers one is already in the army, or