of Tolo. Salt is also abundant. Tin and copper are likewise worked.

In 1883 the pop. of Celebes with adjacent islands was given as 926, 132, inclusive of 6949 Chinese and 2110 Europeans, but probably exclusive of the pop. of the two inner peninsulas. The Bugis (see BONI) and Mangkassars of the south peninsula, tall, shapely, and comparatively fair, are the dominant native race, much disposed to trading and seafaring. The Alfuros,' a collective name for the other native tribes, are at a very low grade of culture. Celebes was first visited in 1525 by a Portuguese expedition from the Moluccas. In 1607 the Dutch began to trade with Celebes, and now claim the whole island, which they have divided into the residencies of Macassar and Menado, a third division round the north and west of the Gulf of Tolo being included in the residence of the Ternate. The total value of the exports in 1884 was £600,000, of which coffee formed nearly a half; and the imports in the same year, £465,714. The women of Celebes weave the sarang, or national garment, which, together with variegated mats, is largely exported. A high-road' skirts the coast of the south peninsula from Mandale, 30 miles N. of Macassar, to Balang-Nifra, on the Gulf of Boni; elsewhere are only ordinary roads and footpaths. The chief town is Macassar, with a sea-frontage of nearly 24 miles. Menado, the capital of Minahassa district, and seat of a Dutch resident, is described as the prettiest settlement in the whole of the Dutch East Indies, and has a pop. of 2500. See Lahure, Lile de Célèbes (Paris, 1879).

Celery (Apium), a widely distributed genus of Umbellifer. The common celery (A. graveolens) is found wild in Britain and most parts of Europe, in ditches, brooks, &c., especially near the sea and in saline soils, and is acrid and uneatable. In cultivation, however, abundant nutrition has greatly mollified its properties, and two principal forms have arisen-one in which an abundant develop ment of parenchyma has taken place in the leafstalks; the other in which it affects the root-while these again possess their sub-varieties. The former sort is the common celery of British gardens, where the familiar long blanched succulent stalks are produced by transplanting the seedlings into richly manured trenches, which are filled up as the plants grow, and finally raised into ridges over which little more than the tops of the leaves appear; and a supply is thus insured throughout the whole winter. The other form is the turnip-rooted celery, or celeriac, and is now largely cultivated on the Continent. Both forms are eaten uncooked alone, or in salads, or in soups, or as a boiled or stewed vegetable, and are pleasant and wholesome, although when used too freely or frequently they are diuretic and aphrodisiac. Some authorities identify celery, instead of the closely related Parsley (q.v.), as the Apium with which vietors in the Isthmian and other games were crowned, and of which the Greeks were also wont to twine their sepulchral garlands.

Celeste, MADAME, dancer, was born in Paris 6th August 1814 (by her own account), more prob. ably three or four years earlier. A pupil at the Conservatoire, she early showed remarkable talent. She made her debut in 1827 at New York, and during her residence in America married one Elliott, who died early. At Liverpool in 1830 she played Fenella in Masaniello; in 1831-33 she became extremely popular in London. Her second visit to America (1834 37) is said to have brought her £40,000. After her return she took part succes sively in the management of the Theatre Royal, Liverpool, and the Adelphi and Lyceum in London. Her imperfect English long confined her to non

CELIBACY

speaking parts. She retired from the stage in 1874, and died at Paris, 12th February 1882.

Celestine, a mineral bearing the same relation to Strontia (q.v.) that heavy spar bears to baryta. It is essentially sulphate of strontia, SrOSO, with occasional admixture of sulphate of baryta, carbonate of lime, oxide of iron, &c., in small proportions. It much resembles heavy spar, but is not quite equal to it in specific gravity; is usually blue, often of a very beautiful indigo-blue; sometimes colourless, more rarely reddish or yellowish. Its crystallisation is rhombic, like that of heavy spar. Most beautiful specimens of crystallised celestine are found in Sicily. Celestine derives its name from its colour. It is the source from which nitrate of strontia, employed in the manufacture of fireworks, is derived.

Celestine was the name of five popes, the first of whom filled St Peter's chair in 422-432 (see POPE). The most notable was the Neapolitan Peter di Morrone, who after a long life of ascetic severities was much against his will elected pope as Celestine V. in 1294, when he was nearly eighty years of age. He resigned his office after five months-the great refusal,' for making which he is placed by Dante at the entrance of hell. He was imprisoned by his successor, Boniface VIII., and died in 1296. He was founder of the Celestines, and was canonised in 1313.

Celestines, an order of hermits of St Damianus, founded by Peter di Morrone about 1254, and confirmed as a monkish order by Urban IV. in 1264 and by Gregory X. in 1274. They called themselves Celestines when their founder ascended the papal chair. They follow the rule of St Benedict, wear a white garment with black hood and scapulary, and live a purely contemplative life. In the 13th and 14th centuries the order spread rapidly through France, Italy, and Germany, but subsequently decayed, and is now almost extinct. The French Celestines were secularised by order of Pope Pius VI. in 1776-78; so also were the Neapolitan Celestines.

Celibacy (from celebs, unmarried'), a state opposed to the first and strongest natural law (Gen. garded in certain religious systems as a condition i. 28), has from a variety of causes come to be reof the most sublime self-sacrifice. The perpetual celibacy of the priests of Isis, and the chastity of the vestal virgins, are familiar instances. But manifested as among the millions devoted to nowhere was this sentiment so strongly and widely the religion of Buddha. The theories of oriental and led before long to the doctrine that virginity is did not fail to influence the early Christian churches, a state in itself more excellent and more holy than Roman Church at least, imposed celibacy upon all the married life, and to the discipline which, in the The Old Testament priests and sacred ministers. is remarkably free from any tendency to exalt celibacy above matrimony. But although texts may be quoted on either side, the germs of the doctrine in question may be discovered in the New Testament. St Paul affirms it to be good for a man not to touch a woman,' and wishes that all men were celibate like himself (1 Cor. vii. 1, 7). Christ himself speaks mysterious words in commendation of those who have made themselves eunuchs for the kingdom of heaven's sake;' and the Lamb is followed on Mount Zion by 144,000 virgins, first-fruits unto God and unto the Lamb' (Rev. xiv. 1-5).

philosophers and the natural tendency of mystics

The apostolic writings, however, while they suggest the excellence of virginity in general, supply no ground for the law of clerical celibacy. In the first epistle to Timothy, the deacon as well as

the bashop is told he must be the husband of one wife, and rule his household and his children well; and forbidding to marry is reckoned among the doctrines of devils. But a remote sanction for the later discipline has been sought for in the regulations of the Jewish priestbad. The Mosaic law forbade priests to marry divorced women or harlots, and enjoined continence upon all when preparing to offer sacrifice. Jerome argies that the Christian priest should offer sacrifice day, and should therefore be perpetually contibent; and Pope Siricius (385 A.D.) insists that marriage was permitted to the priest of the old law only because the sacerdotal order was then limited to the tribe of Levi, but now that the tribal restriction is removed, the license is abrogated also.

The ecclesiastical legislation on celibacy was developed gradually and unequally in the several parts of the church. In the 2d century it became a plous custom to make vows of chastity, and it was thought becoming in the higher clergy to renounce matrimony; and although there are examples of bshops and priests in the first three centuries living with their wives and begetting children, it has been condently asserted that no instance can be quoted of a marriage contracted at this period after ordinaThe obligations of the marriage contract were, however, considered sacred; and the Apostolic Canons impose the penalty of deposition on bishop, priest, or deacon, who should separate from his wife under the pretence of piety. At the end of the 32 and beginning of the 4th century, marriage after ordination was prohibited by formal legislation. A further and important step was taken in the year 36 by the Spanish council of Elvira, which decreed that sacred ministers who were already married,

wild live in continence. At the Council of Nicea an attempt was made to impose this new rule upon the whole church, but it was frustrated by the ognosition of a venerable monk, Paphnutius, himised a celibate; and the law to this day has never been accepted in the Eastern Church. In the West, however, a series of synodal enactments and papal decrees established or renewed the more rigorous rule But in no matter of ecclesiastical discipline must the distinction between theory and practice be more carefully observed. The clergy everywhere resisted the law, and resisted with considerable | Burress. St Patrick, who tells us that his father and grandfather were in holy orders, when laying down rules in one of his Irish synods for the conduct of his clergy, directs that their wives should! keep their heads covered.' In the province of Muan, indeed, the marriage of priests continued to be perfectly legal. Discipline and usage varied in Gifferent countries, but it may be safely said that for many centuries the celibacy of the uncloistered elery was little more than a pious fiction, until Hebrand, afterwards Gregory VII., by his great ience and vigorous measures, secured a more strict observance of the rule.

45

children, and provided for them out of the property of the church. Avaricious princes and prelates made traffic of the concubinage of the lower clergy by levying a species of blackmail, under the name of fines, on the tacit understanding that the focaria, or occupant of the priest's hearth, should not be disturbed. At the time of the Council of Trent, the Emperor Charles, in the expectation that some relaxation would be made in the laws on the subject, permitted in 1548, by the arrangement known as the Interim, married priests to retain their wives until the council should come to a decision. The Emperor Ferdinand a little later (1562) urged upon the same council the abrogation of celibacy. But the Catholic reaction was too strong, and the council in November 1563 pronounced, If any one shall say that clerks constituted in holy orders, or regulars who have solemnly professed chastity, are able to contract matrimony, or that, being contracted, such matrimony is valid. . . let him be anathema.'

It should be observed, however, that in the United Greek Church Rome tolerates a married clergy— i.e. a man already married may be ordained priest, and continue to live with his wife, though continence is imposed upon him at certain times. It is the custom for the young candidate for orders to leave the seminary for a while to get a wife, and then return for ordination. If he should become a widower, he cannot of course marry again, and no married priest can be made a bishop. The bishops are therefore, as a rule, taken from the monasteries.

Since the Council of Trent, the observance of celibacy has been comparatively well maintained. This is especially true of those countries where the Catholic community is mixed with or surrounded by Protestant neighbours, and watched by a vigilant press. Away from the high-roads of civilisation, in Mexico, Brazil, and other parts, concubinage has again become the rule, less openly perhaps, but quite as obstinately as in the middle ages.

The moral loss or gain to the church from her discipline in this matter is a question of controversy which from time to time has been raised within her own communion. But the attention paid by biologists to the hereditary transmission of human faculties and dispositions has recently exhibited the effects of celibacy in a new light. Mr Galton has remarked that the Roman Church has acted as if she aimed at selecting the rudest portion of the community to be alone the parent of future generations. The policy which attracts men and women of gentle natures fitted for deeds of charity, meditation, or study to the unfruitful life of the cloister and the priesthood, appears from this point of view to be singularly unwise and suicidal,' tending, as it must, though by impercep tible degrees, to the deterioration of the race. To the enforcing of this discipline in Spain, for example (coupled with the cutting off of independent thinkers by the Inquisition), Mr Galton attributes much of the decadence of the country during the last three centuries. In France, where the most promising lads of the village are successively picked out by the parish priest for the bishop's seminary, the process of elimination must in the long run tell

Cell, a unit-mass of living matter, whether rounded off by itself, as in the simplest plants or animals and in the youngest stage of all organisms, or associated with other cells to form a higher unity. The great majority of the Protozoa and Protophyta are single cells, and all other organisms begin where the former leave off. From the double unity resulting from the fusion of two sex-cells the higher plants and animals develop by repeated division, and they may be therefore always resolved into more or less close combinations of variously

Fig. 1.-Dividing Egg-cell (after Gegenbaur).

modified unit-masses. In most cases these individualities of the simplest order are minute, and their separateness is not to be discerned with the unaided eye, but there are many instances among the simplest plants and animals, as well as in the component elements of higher forms, where the unit-masses are relatively giant-cells and quite visible without the use of the microscope. The giant Amoeba Pelomyxa, the common sun-animalcule Actinosphærium, the Alga Botrydium, and some of the cells (e.g. bast) of plants may be noted as illustrations of cells with considerable dimensions. In the great majority of cases the body of the cell includes a well-defined centre or nucleus; and the definition may therefore be extended in the statement that a cell is a nucleated unit-mass of living matter or protoplasm.

I. History. In the article BIOLOGY it has been pointed out that a more and more penetrating scrutiny alike of structure and of function led naturalists from organs to tissues, and from tissue to cell. Some of the steps in this gradually deepening analysis deserve fuller record.

Discovery of Cells.-In the latter half of the 17th century the simple microscope afforded to Malpighi and Leeuwenhoek, to Hooke and Grew, what was literally a vision of a new world. In applying their rough and simple instruments to the study of the structure of plants and animals they became pioneers in the investigation of the infinitely little. Leeuwenhoek (Phil. Trans. 1674) seems to have been the first to observe, what are now so familiar, single-celled organisms. In the 18th century Swammerdam and others continued with much enthusiasm to describe the minute intricacies which their new eyes' revealed; Fontana (1784) observed the kernel of the cell-the nucleus-and some of the elements of the tissues; but the foundation of scientific histology was not laid until the appearance in 1801 of the Anatomie Générale of Bichat. In this epoch-making work organs were resolved into their component tissues, and their functions were interpreted as the sum-total of the properties of their constituent elements. Such a conclusion was the utmost that could be reached with the appliances then at command.

Early in this century, however, an improvement in the appliances of observation furnished a fulcrum for a new advance. Fraunhofer discovered the principle of achromatic lenses (see LENS, MICROSCOPE); these were combined into the compound microscope, and a new era began. Fibres' and 'globules, laminæ, nuclei, and even cells' were described. In 1831 Robert Brown emphasised the normal presence of the nucleus discovered by Fontana, and made the first important advances in the study of the vegetable cell. Isolated discoveries,

such as that of the nucleolus by Valentin (1836), occurred in rapid succession during those years. Dujardin in 1835 described the sarcode or living matter of the Protozoan Foraminifera and of some other cells, and thus emphasised, as Rösel von Rosenhof had done many years before (1755) in regard to the 'Proteus animalcule' or Amoeba, the most important element to be considered in forming a true conception of the cell. The importance of his description, of which he was apparently himself unconscious, had for some time the same fate as that of his predecessor of almost a century before. Observations had in fact to accumulate before any generalisation became possible. The first definite steps towards a co-ordination of results was probably that of Johannes Müller, who in 1835 pointed out the resemblance between the cells of the vertebrate notochord and the elements observed in plants. The cellular nature of the epidermis and the presence of nuclei therein was next ascertained, and similar discoveries were made in regard to several other tissues. Up to 1838 there was in fact a period of research in which cells were observed rather than understood.

Establishment of the Cell-theory.-As early as 1826 Turpin had maintained that plants were formed by an agglomeration of cells. Professor M'Kendrick well points out, what one would of course expect, that for some years before 1838 botanists were beginning generally to recognise the cellular composition and origin of plants. The conclusion known as the 'cell-theory was doubtless vaguely present in many minds. Its definite statement was still awanting. In 1838, however, Schleiden proved that a nucleated cell is the only original component of a plant embryo, and that the development of all tissues might be referred to such cells. In the following year Schwann published at Berlin his famous Microscopic Investigations on the Accordance in the Structure and Growth of Plants and Animals (Trans. Sydenham Society, 1847). In this classic work it was shown that all organisms, plants and animals alike, are made up of cells, and spring from cells. In composition and in origin there is unity. The generalisation familiarly known as the cell-theory was thus clearly established, and though now a commonplace and postulate of histology, it may fairly be described in Agassiz's words as the greatest discovery in the natural sciences in modern times.' Following up the generalisations of Schwann and Schleiden, come a host of researches by which the essential advance contained in the cell-theory' was more and more fully confirmed. Cells were not only observed, their import was recognised.

New Conception of the Cell.-When the cell-theory was established, the general conception of the cell was far from being either accurate or complete. It was usually described as a vesicle closed by a solid membrane, containing a liquid in which float a nucleus and granular bodies. It was also the general opinion that such cells originated within a structureless ground substance. In two ways these notions were speedily corrected. On the one hand as regards the origin of cells, Prevost and Dumas (1824), Martin Barry (1838-9), Reichert (1840), Henle (1841), Kölliker (1846), Remak (1852), showed that in the case of the egg-cell, and in the growth of tissues, each new cell arose by division from a predecessor. This important conclusion was most firmly established by Goodsir in 1845, and Virchow in 1858, who proved that in all cases, normal and pathological alike, cells arose from preexisting cells, a fact expressed in the axiom omnis cellula e cellula. In the second place it gradually became apparent that too much importance had been attached to the cell-wall and too little to the contained substance. Referring details to the

article PROTOPLASM, we may note some of the Important steps. Dujardin (1835) described the arrode of Protozoa and other cells; Purkinje 11879) emphasised the analogy between the protoplasm of the animal embryo and the cambium of plant-cells; Von Molil (1846) emphasised in the clearest way the importance of the protoplasm in the vegetable cell; Ecker (1849) Compared the contractile substance of muscles with that of the amoeba; Donders also referred the contractility from the cell-wall to the contained material: Cohn suspected that the sarcode' of animal and the 'protoplasm of plant-cells must be in the highest degree analogous substance; and an throughout another decade did botanists and zoologists unite in laying stress rather on the living matter than on the wall of the cell, and in hinting at the existence of one living substance as the physical basis alike of plants and animals. | This view found at length definite expression in 11, when Max Schultze defined the modern conception of the cell as a unit-mass of nucleated protoplasm. Since then the protoplasmic movement has dominated research, and we think not so much of the cell-containing protoplasm as of the protoplasm which constitutes and gives form to the cell.

II. Structure of the Cell.-While it is impossible to isolate the static from the dynamic aspects of the cell, it will be convenient to discuss the two separately, and to consider the cell at rest and dea i, apart from the cell active and alive. In other words, the form, structure, or morphology may be studied for literary clearness apart from the functions, life, and physiology.

1 General Form. The typical and primitive form of the cell is spherical. This is illustrated by many of the simplest plants and animals which live freely, and by young cells such as ova. But the typical form is in many, indeed in most cases, lost; and the forms assumed are as diverse as the internal and external conditions of life. The cell may be irregular and protean, as in Amoebae, white blood corpuscles, and many young eggs; or queezed into rectangular shape, as in much of the #stance of a leaf; or flattened into thinness, as in | the outer lining of the lips; or oval and pointed, as in swiftly moving Infusorians and Bacteria; or Each branched, as in multipolar ganglion cells of animals or the latex-containing cells of some plants. The typical spherical and self-contained form is that which would naturally be assumed by a comrex coherent substance situated in a medium ¿.ferent from itself. The other forms are responses to internal and external conditions. Under the beading Cell-cycle below it will be shown how the relative activity and passivity of the cell naturally expresses itself in such extremes as a long-drawn Infusorian and a rounded-off Gregarine, or in a my nourished ovum and a mobile spermatozoon., Further, ceils, like entire animals, often show a ten lency to become two-ended, to have poles very d.ferent from one another. Just as an animal may have a highly nourished head and a scantily pornshed tail, so a cell may become distinctly Far in form. In other cases the cell is altogether juste, expressing every impulse of internal change and every impact of external influence in some modification of form. Or the state of nutrition of the living matter may cause alteration in the hesion of the substance all over, or in particular ; as, and thus condition an outflowing, regular Te irregular, in given directions. Furthermore, exteral pressure and limitation of growth may zare off the cell into a parallelogram, or restrict it to grow like a bast fibre in length alone and not with In fact the conditions are most manilui, and the resultant forms likewise.

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47

(b) General Substance of the Cell.-The cell is much more than a mass of highly complex chemical substance: it has an organised structure. (1) The protoplasm or living matter in the strictest sense is generally supposed to be an intimate mixture of complex and highly unstable chemical compounds. Inspection under a microscope of such cells as amabæ, white blood-corpuscles, ova, simple algae, or such as are readily seen in thin slices of growing plant-shoots, in root-hairs, and transparent parts, will at once furnish an impression of the general aspect of the substance of the cell. Not all that one sees can of course deserve the name of protoplasm, for apart from definite inclosures like starchgrains and fat-globules, much of the remaining slightly clouded substance is hardly to be strictly called protoplasm, but rather represents steps in the ceaseless making and unmaking which form the fundamental rhythm of life. Keeping the definite inclosures and products for the moment aside, we may briefly notice in general outline what has been with most conclusiveness observed as to the structure of the general cell-substance or cytoplasm' as it is now frequently termed. All observers agree that the structure is far removed from the homogeneous, though there is much difference of opinion as to the nature of the heterogeneity. In a large number of cases at least the substance of the cell has been resolved into two distinct portions-the one an intricate network, knotted and interlaced in a manner battling descrip tion; the other a clear substance, filling up the interstices or meshes of the living net. Leydig, Frommann, and Heitzmann have been peculiarly successful in unravelling this knotted structure in animal cells, and much the same has been recorded by Strasburger and Schmitz as observable in some plants. The reticulate structure is certainly more doubtful in regard to vegetable cells, and even in some animal cells what some have described as a network others have deemed only a minutely bubbled emulsion.

But besides the real substance of the cell there are to be seen products of various kinds formed from the living matter. The cell may be packed with starch, or laden with fat, or expanded with mucus; it may contain colouring matter in various forms, as in the familiar chlorophyll bodies of many plant-cells; its structure may include, as in some Protozoa, definitely formed fibrils or yet firmer formations of chitin and the like; and again there are concretions of retained waste and reserve products, sometimes in the form of crystals. Not to be overlooked either is the fine 'dust-cloud' of minute granules which are seen suspended in the clearer matrix, and which apparently represent aggrega tions of diverse chemical substances formed in the building up and breaking down of the protoplasm. As the outside of any mass is bound to be in different conditions from the inside, it is natural to find the appearance of distinct physical and chemical zones in the cell-substance. Thus in many Protozoa the outer portion, needlessly termed ectoplasm, is often denser and more refractive than the more fluid and internal stratum of the endoplasm. Or this may go further, and we may have a sweatedoff limiting cuticle, or a definitely organised wall of cellulose in vegetable cells. The cuticle may be further substantiated with secretions of horny, flinty, limy, and other material. Even within the cell a stratified structure may be frequently observed, and Berthold and others have recently emphasised the existence of such concentric layers, each characterised by its own special set of de posits.

Worthy of notice, too, are the various kinds of bubbles or vacuoles which occur in the cell substance. These may be simply indefinite spaces,