552 slowly built up or evolved by secondary causes mystification and confusion. If the Bible had under the control of natural laws. The new really aimed at science-teaching, geology would scientific position did not traverse the biblical view have been one of the last things upon which it of the origin of matter or of life; nor did it deny would have enlightened mankind. Why was not that the laws of nature might be the hands of physiology taught to physicians, or the use of the Living God.' But it claimed that the creation chloroform to surgeons, or of the stars to navi of the world was an ordinary problem for scientific gators-matters which would have affected the investigation, and that so far as that had gone, well-being and actual life of man? In fact it some form of development was probably the means is a first principle of revelation-involved in the by which creation had been brought about. Frankly very meaning of the word and proved by its whole recognising the right of science to deal with this expression-that matters which are discoverable question, and accepting on certain points the over- by human reasoning and observation should find whelming evidence of geology, theologians found no place in it, that its subject matter is that alone themselves compelled to reconsider their ground. which men could not find out for themselves. The first difficulty was that of time. And here Men could find out for themselves the order in they yielded at once by substituting periods' for which the world was made. What they could not the days' of Genesis-an expedient which, what- find out was, that God made it. That therefore ever literary objection may be taken to it, was was the object of Genesis-theology, not geology. certainly allowed by the original Hebrew. Efforts Genesis is a presentation of one or two great were next made to reconcile these 'periods' with elementary religious truths to the childhood of the the formations of geology and with the succession world. Dating from the infancy of the world, of life as revealed by paleontology. Devout men written for children, and for that child-spirit in of science worked out these harmonies with great man which remains unchanged by time, its literary learning and ingenuity, and as new discoveries of form takes colour and shape accordingly. It is not science threw their labours aside, fresh workers by dedicated to the reason but to the soul. It is a further manipulation of the data on either side con- sublime theology, clothed in the most memorable tinued the attempt to bring the apparently rival and impressive dress, utilising, purifying, and transrecords once more into line. Prominent among fusing with the religious spirit some material at these attempts were the Universal Pre-Adamite least which was common to the cosmogonies of all Chaos theory of Dr Chalmers; the Partial Chaos nations. Now from this point of view the problem theory of Dr Pye Smith; the Vision theory of of the reconciliation of Genesis with geology simply Hugh Miller; and the cognate though not identical disappears. The question becomes as irrelevant as theories of Kurtz and Guyot. Such attempts were when it is asked what the Paradise Lost is meant at that time perfectly admissible, and even inevi- to prove. Science and Genesis are no longer in table-inevitable because the true direction from competition as to which shall be the accepted which the solution was to come was not yet sus- authority regarding the process of the creation of pected. But one by one these efforts failed. An the world. Genesis does not even enter the field. attempt by Mr Gladstone, so recently as 1885, And in ceding this position it is only to assume, elicited a reply from Mr Huxley, who, in the with even greater authority, its legitimate and name of modern science, not only repudiated the much higher function. immediate theory but made it obvious that no reconstruction along that line was ever likely to square with acknowledged facts of science. It is of course always possible to challenge the current reading of a growing science, and the harmonist may still take refuge if he chooses in the fallibility of contemporary interpretations of nature. the general question of gradual development versus specific creation, the consensus of mature scientific opinion is now so pronounced that any one still clinging to the latter would find it impossible to impress his views upon his age. In some other way, then, the educated mind will seek to reconcile to itself the apparent want of reconciliation between the teaching of nature and the teaching of Scripture. But on Stated in a word, the explanation is to be sought for in the fact-recently brought into prominence by the young science of biblical criticism-that the Scriptures really contain no teaching at all upon matters of science. It is an elementary canon of literary criticism that any interpretation of a part of a book or of a literature must be controlled by the dominant purpose or motif of the whole. And when one investigates that dominant purpose in the case of the Bible, it is found to reduce itself to one thing-religion. The books of the Bible, respectively, can only be read aright in the spirit in which each was written, with its original purpose in view, and its original audience. Bearing that in view in the case of Genesis it soon becomes evident that a scientific theory of the universe formed no part of the original writer's intention. Could any one with any historical imagination for a moment expect that it would have been? There was no science then. Scientific questions were not even asked then. And to have given men science would not only have been an anachronism, but a source of The strength of this attitude is that it is quite independent of all conclusions of science. Evolution may be true or false, science may change its ground, new discoveries may arise; but these cannot affect the literary and theological province within which wholly this question is now seen to lie. Hence the attack of science is for ever dis armed. And those who assent to evolution, and the many who in its present form do not yet see their way to accept it, may hold an equal truce with Genesis. As regards the material utilised by the writer in Genesis, it is sufficient to remark that most of it is a common property of the older cosmogonies. The mythology of Persia describes six creative periods of a thousand years; the cosmogony of the Chaldeans is similar; while that of the Etruscans agrees still more closely with the order of Genesis. Thus the Bible did not create this material, nor reveal it. It incorporated it, inspired it, and so made it the vehicle of a revelation. Crébillon, PROSPER JOLYOT DE, a French dramatist, was born at Dijon, on January 13, 1674. His parents belonged to the middle class, and he was educated in Paris for the law. He soon abandoned a legal for a literary career, and his tragedy of Idoménée was successfully produced in 1703. It was followed by Atrée et Thyeste (1707), Electre (1709), and Rhadamiste et Zenobie (1711 The last is his best play, the character of Zenobia being drawn with remarkable power. After writing several other pieces, Crébillon fell into neglect and produced nothing for more than twenty years He was then pushed forward as a dramatic rival to Voltaire by Madame de Pompadour and other enemies of the great writer, elected to the Academy, awarded a pension of 1000 francs, and appointed royal censor, and one of the royal CRÈCHE librarians. His tragedy of Catilina, for which the king furnished the properties, was brought out with great success in 1748. Among his other Works were Xerxes, Semiramis, Pyrrhus, and Le Iriumeirat, the last of which was written when he was eighty-one years old. He died on June 17, 1762. He was a very unequal writer. An oppres sive gloom pervades the tragedies which he founded on Greek legend; but occasionally he writes naturally and powerfully. Not a few of his verses have a grandeur which has been said to be hardly discoverable elsewhere in French tragedy between Corneille and Hugo' (Saintsbury). Next to Voltaire, he was the best tragic dramatist of his age in France. There are editions of his works by Perelie (2 vols. 1828) and Vitu (1885).-CLAUDE PROSPER JOLYOT DE CREBILLON, the younger son of the dramatist, was born in Paris on February 14. 1707. He was educated at the Jesuit College of Louis le Grand, and after writing a number of slight pieces for the stage, acquired great popu larity as an author of prose fiction. In 1740 he married an Englishwoman, Lady Stafford. One of his books, Le Sopha, conte moral, having given offence to Madame de Pompadour by its indecency, he was banished from Paris for five years, but on his return in 1755 was appointed to the censorship. He was believed by his friends to be dead long before he died on April 12, 1777. Crèche (Fr., manger'), a sort of public nursery where, for a small payment, the children of women I who have to go out to work are fed, nursed, and taken care of during the work hours of the day. Crécy-en-Ponthieu, or CRESSY, a village in the French department of Somme, on the Maye, 12 miles N. of Abbeville. Crécy is celebrated "on account of the brilliant victory obtained here, 26th August 1346, by Edward III., with 40,000 English diers, over a French army amounting, according to Froissart, to 100,000 men under the command of the Count of Alencon. In this great battle, one of the most honourable to English prowess recorded in history, perished the flower of the French chivalry, as well as the blind king of Bohemia, who was fighting on the side of France. Altogether about 30.000 of the French soldiers bit the dust. In ti i battle the Black Prince distinguished himself greatly, and gained his spurs (see WALES, PRINCE OFL Pop. 1382. Credence, a small table placed near the altar or communion-table, at its south side, on which the bread and wine intended for consecration are placed in readiness. In the Greek Church this is called the trapeza prothesens, or simply prothesis, but is always placed north of the altar, usually in a structural side chapel. Archbishop Land was a great stickler for the credence, and pleaded the authority of Bishop Andrewes and other bishops for Its use. There are ancient credences in various Anghean churches; among others, in the Collegiate and St John's churches, Manchester, and in the parish church at Ludlow, where they have been in use from time immemorial. Sometimes the place of the credence was supplied by a mere shelf across I the Fenestella, or a niche in the south wall of the et Ancel The term was also used for a buffet, or letward, at which the meats were tasted in early I tits before being presented to the guests, as a precaution against poison. Hence the origin of the wri, which is derived from the Ital, credenzare, to taste meats and drinks before they were offered to another, an ancient court practice, which was performed by the cup bearers and carvers, who for 1's reason were called in Ger. credenzer, The usage is still observed at Rome when the pope cele | brates mass, some of the waters and of the wine to be offered being tasted by the assistant ministers, | before they are brought to him as oblation. The introduction or restoration of credences is one of those restitutions of old usages which marked the Oxford movement in England; and they have been judicially pronounced legal ornaments of the church, as subsidiary or auxiliary to the celebrating of Holy Communion, in order to compliance with the rubrics in that part of the Common Prayerbook. Credentials, papers or letters given to an ambassador, or other public minister, to a foreign court, in order to enable him to claim the contidence of the court to which he is sent. as the power to make use of another man's wealth. Credit, in Political Economy, may be defined It rests on the simple fact that when one man has ready, for a consideration, to lend it to another. more wealth than he proposes to use himself, he is The wealth thus lent may be used for purposes either of production or consumption, though the great function of credit in modern industry is to furnish the means of production to those who are in need of them. Credit of course is not capital, but it enables one man to utilise the capital of another. The credit system is an elaborate system of appli and borrowing are provided. Bills and bank-notes ances and institutions, by which facilities for lending are well-known instruments of credit. Banks are the most notable institutions of credit, which is further facilitated by companies of every kind, designed to transmit superabundant capital to the most distant colonies and to all the ends of the earth. Credit is thus a mighty organ of industry, whose operations are co-extensive with the world, but it has attained to this far-reaching and cosmopolitan position only in comparatively recent times. Yet it is also one of the oldest phenomena in the his tory of society, marked by usages and laws, which are of the highest interest and importance. Credit is found in the earliest communities, one of its most striking forms being in the relations of the primitive farming class to the money lender. was considerably developed in ancient Greece and Rome, as also in the commercial Phoenician states on the Mediterranean. During the middle ages it grew up in the Italian republies, and afterwards in the cities of Germany and the Netherlands, But its vast extension dates from the great development of commerce and industry connected with bined with the utilisation of steam and the electric the United States, India, and the colonies, comtelegraph. In short the development of the credit system has gone hand in hand with the develop ment of modern industry. While the credit system has thus so powerfully aided the development of industry by supplying capital to those who have ability and opportunity to utilise it, it is needless to say that it has led to many abuses. In early communities the creditor had power to enslave, maim, or even to slay the debtor. In modern times, by rendering capital accessible to adventurers of every class, it has occasionally given scope for the wildest and most dishonest speculation. Credit, CASH. See CASH ACCOUNT. It Crédit Foncier (`landed credit'), a system of lending money on the security of landed property, established in France by an ediet of 28th February 1852. Its peculiarity is that the loan is repayable by a terminable annuity, the amount and currency of the annuity being so calculated that when the last payment is made, the loan and the interest on it will be extinguished. Or it may be described as a loan repayable by instalments. The borrower, however, has the right of anticipating repayment. The system is precisely regulated by the" edict, which prohibits an advance to more than one-half of the value of the property pledged or hypothecated. Three companies were established by the French government in Paris, Marseilles, and Nevers. They were all formed in 1852, and on 10th December of the same year were amalgamated as the Crédit Foncier de France, with the privilege of making such advances. The Crédit Foncier stands relatively to real estate as the Crédit Mobilier to personal property. The companies formed in Britain to advance money for improvements on landed properties are of a similar character. The Crédit Foncier (Limited), formed in London in 1864, was a general finance company. It speculated and abroad, met with heavy losses, and was several largely in the promotion of public works at home times reorganised. CREEDS transferred to Exeter. Its woollen manufactures are a thing of the past. Pop. (1851) 3924; (1881) 4165. Creditor. See DEBTOR, BANKRUPTCY. Creech, WILLIAM, Edinburgh bookseller, born 21st April 1745, learned his trade in Edinburgh and London, and spent some time on the Continent before beginning business in 1771. For more than forty years he issued the chief literary productions Edinburgh edition of Burns, and the works of Blair, of that period in Edinburgh, including the first 13), and died 14th January 1815. His newspaper Beattie, and Dugald Stewart, and Mackenzie's Mirror and Lounger. He was Lord Provost (1811letters and odd writings collected in Edinburgh Fugitive Pieces (1791; new ed. with memoir, 1815), contain much curious information about old Edinburgh, and the way of life of a past generation. E. of New York by rail, with an extensive rifle- range. Credit, LETTER OF. This is the term applied to a letter addressed to a correspondent at a distance, requesting him to pay a sum therein specified to the person named, or to hold the money at his disposal, and authorising the correspondent to reimburse himself for such payment, either by debiting it in account between the parties, or by drawing on the first party for the amount. This Creeds, the authorised expressions of the arrangement may take place between merchants doctrine of the church at large, or of the several main sections into which it is divided. Such or others, but in general it occurs between bankers residing in different places-e.g. between statements of doctrine sprang up naturally in the a banker in London and his correspondent in course of the church's progress. As the doctrines New York; and it is designed to enable any one taught by Christ became the subjects of thought, who has money lodged at one place to obtain of argument, of controversy, they could not fail to the use of it at another for a small charge, or receive a more defined intellectual expression, and commission, without the risk or trouble of actu to be drawn out into more precise dogmatic stateally carrying money between the two cities. ments; and the great creeds, as they rise in sueIt is thus a sort of primitive or informal Bill cession, and mark the climax of successive conof Exchange (q.v.), though not, like a bill, a troversial epochs in the church, are nothing else negotiable instrument. Sometimes the letter is than the varying expressions of the Christian conaddressed to all or several of the correspond-sciousness and reason, in their efforts more coments of the bank issuing it, in which case it is pletely to realise, comprehend, and express the termed a Circular Credit; and any of them may originally simple elements of truth as they are pay the sum mentioned, or sums to account as recorded in Scripture. Accordingly, the creeds of desired, taking the holder's receipt, or his draft on Christendom grow in complexity, in elaborate the granter, in exchange; and the sums so paid analysis and inventiveness of doctrinal statement, are indorsed on the letter, to show how far the as they succeed one another. credit has been used. Even where the granter has no correspondent, the holder of an authentic letter will usually have little difficulty in obtaining money upon it; and the system is thus productive of much convenience to all who have occasion to travel. Some bankers, having an extensive correspondence abroad, issue what are called Circular Notes, usually of the value of £10 or £20 each, which any of the granter's correspondents, or indeed any one else, may cash to the holder, on his indorsation and production of a letter of indication. In this kind of credit, the notes are bought outright; whereas for the ordinary letter of credit, the banker debits the drafts under it only when they are advised to him. The introduction (about 1770) of these notes, which have proved of great convenience to travellers, though of little direct profit to the banks, is due to Mr Herries, the founder of the eminent banking house of Herries, Farquhar, & Co., London. A marginal credit is one in which the due pay. ment of the bills or drafts under it are guaranteed by a third party interested in the transaction; the guarantee being usually expressed in a marginal note on the bill. See CIRCULAR NOTES. Crédit Mobilier. See Mobilier. Crediton, or KIRKTON, a borough in the middle of Devonshire, on the Creedy, a tributary of the Exe, 7 miles NW. of Exeter. It lies in a narrow vale between two steep hills, and, having suffered much by fire in 1743 and 1769, is mostly modern. Its church, however, is a fine old cruciform structure. The birthplace of St Boniface (q.v.), the apostle of Germany, Crediton was the seat of a bishopric from 910 to 1050, when it was What has been called the Apostles' Creed is probably the earliest form of Christian creed that exists, unless we give the precedence to the baptismal formula at the close of St Matthew's Gospel, out of which many suppose the Apostles' Creed to have grown. There were in the early church differing forms of this primitive creed: that which is received and repeated in the service of the Church Church; and some of its clauses, as, for instance, of England has come to us through the Latin 'He descended into hell,' and again, The com munion of saints,' are at anyrate additions to the earliest known forms, even if they are not developments of doctrine. A great variety of opinions has been held as to the origin of this creed. It has not only been attributed to the apostles directly, but a legend has professed to settle the clauses respee tively contributed by the several apostles. The i earliest account of its origin we have from Rufinus, an historical compiler of the 4th century. His statement is, that the apostles, when met together, and filled with the Holy Ghost, composed this compend of what they were to preach, each one which they resolved to give as a rule of faith to contributing his share to the one composition, those who should believe." But Rufinus is no great historical authority, and even learned Roman Catholics (as Wetzer and Welte) regard the story as a legend. It is not improbable in itself, however, that even in the age of the apostles some formula of belief existed. The exact form of the present creed cannot pretend to be so ancient by four hundred years, but Irenæus repeats a creed not much unlike the present; and Tertullian also affirms that a similar creed had been prevalent as a rule of faith in the church from the beginning of CREEDS the gospel. The same thing is proved by the creeds administered to the candidates for baptism in the 24 and 3d centuries. They correspond, with slight variations, to the Apostles' Creed. The true view of this formula of church belief, therefore, seems to be that which regards it as the Roman or Latin form of the creed which prevailed in all the early churches. It is not strictly apostolic; but it sulstantially apostolic-fairly representative of the different elements of Christian faith as handed down from the apostles. The Vicene, or rather the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed is the next great expression of doctrinal truth that we meet with in the history of the church. It sprang out of the conflict, which had begun even in the 2d century, as to the dignity and character of Christ. (For the various Christological doctrines, see CHRIST, CHURCH HISTORY.) These debates continued more or less throughout the 3d century; and early in the 4th Arius denied that (hrist was of the substance of God, or without beginning; he was only the highest of created beings, in a sense divine, but not the same in substance with the Father, nor equal with him in power and glory. Athanasius came forward as the opponent of Arius, and the contest raged throughout the church. The Council of Nicea was summoned in 325 by Constantine, with the view of settling this controversy, and the Nicene Creed was the result. There were these three parties in the council-the Athanasians, or extreme orthodox party; the Eusebians, or middle party; and the Arians, or heretical party. The heretics were few in number, and possessed but little influence; but the Eusebians were a strong party, and for some time resisted certain expressions of the orthodox or Athanasians, which seemed to them extreme and unwarranted. At length the Homöousians, as the Athanasians were called, prevailed; and Christ was declared not merely to be of like substance (homoiousios), but of the same substance (homoousios) with the Father. At the later Council of Constantinople (381), the aditional tenet of the divinity of the Holy Spirit was added, and the creed completed in the form in which it is familiar in the mass and in the communion service in the Book of Common Prayer, except the memorable phrase and from the Son' que). This phrase, teaching the procession of the Holy Spirit from the Son, which was destined to be the subject of controversy between the Eastern and Western Churches (see Greek Church, seems to have been added by the Western Churches in the 5th and 6th centuries, The next remarkable monument of doctrinal truth in the church is what is called the Athaman Creed, a product probably of the 5th century, much later than Athanasius himself, but representing, with great formal minuteness and fidelity, his doctrine of the Trinity, as apprehended and elaborated by the Western Church. See ATHANASIAN CREED. The Apostles', the Nicene, the Athanasian, may he said to form the great catholic creeds of the church. After the time of the last mentioned formula, there is no general symbol of faith that claims our attention till the period of the Reformation. When the eye of free criticism and argument was turned upon Scripture, new creeds, or rather confessions, began to spring up; these are treated at CONFESSIONS. The Professio Fudei Tridentina, Commonly known as the Creed of Pope Pius, arose out of the Decrees of Trent, and is practically the Confession of Faith of the Roman Catholic Church , and see TRENT). This was published in 1.64, but some important additions to it were made in 1870, in consequence of the decision of the Vatican Council. It is remarkable that the oriental churches have never formally accepted any creed except the Nicene, without the insertion of the word filioque in connection with the Procession of the Holy Spirit (q.v.). See Smith's Dictionary of Christian Antiquities; the Encyclopaedia of the Roman Catholics Wetzer and Welte; the works of Dr Heurtley of Oxford; of the Lutheran Dr Caspari; and the three volumes of the Presbyterian Dr Schaff (Lond. 1877). Among patristic treatises may be specially named the Catechetical Lectures of St Cyril of Jerusalem, in the 4th century, and somewhat later the tractates of St Augustine, De Fide et Symbolo; De Symbolo ad Catechumenos. In the 17th century an English prelate, Bishop Bull, received the thanks of the Gallican Church, led by Bossuet, for his Defensio Fidei Nicence, and Bishop Pearson and Dean Jackson won lasting fame by their respective volumes on the Apostles' Creed. On the Roman Catholic side the learned Jesuit Petau (Petavius) is conspicuous, and in 1832 Möhler published two volumes entitled Symbolik, which treated of the Reformed and Roman Confessions. See ARTICLES, ATHANASIAN CREED, CONFESSIONS, THEOLOGY. coast, and in rivers formed by the mouths of small Creek, in Geography, is a small inlet on a low streams. In America and also in Australia, the term creek is applied to small rivers. Creeks, or MUSCOGEES, a formerly powerful tribe of American Indians, of the Appalachian stock, who, reduced by war to some 25,000, were in 1836 removed from Georgia and Alabama to Indian Territory. In 1872 their number was estimated at 13,000. Creeper (Certhia), a genus of Passerine birds, the type of the family Certhiade. The bill is long, much curved, laterally compressed, and pointed; the tongue is long, narrow, sharp-pointed, and jagged near its tip; the tail is rather long, and the tips of the tail feathers are firm and pointed, extending beyond the webs. The feet are rather slender; the hind-toe about as long as the others. The feet are well adapted for tree-climbing, and the stiff feathers of the tail are also employed for sup port. There is probably more than one species, but this is doubtful, and the distribution is somewhat wide. The Common Creeper (C. familiaris) is stant habit. The usual course of action is a rapid jerky ascent up the trunk, and then a headlong flight to the root of the next tree. It searches for insects and their larvæ in the crevices of the bark. The nest is usually formed in a hole of a decayed tree. The creeper is one of the smallest of British birds, although considerably larger than the wren. The continental species or varieties are said to be really songsters, but in Britain only the males are known to sing, and that only at the breeding season. A shrill monotonous cry is all that is usually heard. Its prevalent colour is dark gray above, with spots of yellow and white; the under parts are white. Like other members of the family, the creeper is of much importance in clearing insects from forest trees.-The Wall Creeper (Tichodroma muraria) of the south of Europe frequents walls and the faces of rocks; it has a more slender bill, and the tail-feathers are not pointed.The Nuthatch (q.v.) is a closely allied genus. Creeper. See CLIMBING PLANTS. Crema, a town of Lombardy, 27 miles NW. of Cremona by rail, with a cathedral (1341). Pop. 8251. Cremation, the reduction of the dead human body to ashes by fire, was a very early and widespread usage of antiquity. The early Aryans-as opposed to the non-Aryan aborigines of India-the Greeks, Romans, Slavs, Celts, and Germans, burned their dead, so that cremation may be regarded as the universal custom of the Indo-European_races. The graves of North Europe throughout the 'bronze age' contain only jars with ashes. It was Christianity that gradually suppressed the practice of cremation. In India it is still a usual method for disposing of corpses, and is also practised by numerous uncivilised peoples of Asia and America (see BURIAL). A return to the practice has been strongly insisted on by many in modern Europe. This is opposed mainly on grounds of kindly feeling for the dead, and for religious reasons connected with the belief in the resurrection of the dead. Advocates of cremation assert that these are prejudices founded on misapprehension, and allege that the question is solely a sanitary one. The damage to the health of such as live near churchyards and cemeteries, from the exhalations of noxious gases and the poisoning of water supplies, is an indisputable fact, and is in many cases quite inevitable. By burning, the body is reduced more swiftly to its constituent elements, without disrespect to the dead or hurt to the living. The ashes of the body of an adult after due incineration weigh from 5 to 7 lb. Others allege as the juridicocriminal difficulty that cremation might be made to destroy the evidence of murder (as by poisoning); but advocates of cremation answer that a properly organised system of medical inspection would obviate this objection. In Italy cremation has been legal since 1877, and is not unusual at Milan, Lodi, Cremona, Brescia, Padua, Varese, and Rome, and at these places crematory furnaces, on the Gorini system, have been erected. About 1000 cremations have taken place in these and other Italian towns. In Berlin, Dresden, and Leipzig there has been strong agitation in favour of cremation; and at Gotha there is a large mortuary and crematorium, where between 1878 and 1888 more than 550 bodies had been cremated and lodged in the Columbaria of the crematory temple. Societies for securing the legalisation of the process exist in nearly every country in Europe, and in some the rite of cremation is permissible. At present this is not so in Belgium, Russia, or Austria. Two crematory furnaces were erected in 1888 by the municipality of Paris at Père-la-Chaise. The movement found for long but little favour in the United | CREMONA States; thus, there were but twenty cremations between 1875 and 1882, but now several crematories are in frequent use in North America. Interest in this movement was awakened in England in 1874 by Sir Henry Thompson: the council of the society established in that year purchased ground at Woking, in Surrey, in 1878, and there erected a crematory on the principle of that at Lodi. This apparatus had by 1889 consumed forty human bodies in the most complete manner. For each cremation about seven shillings' worth of wood fagots and coal are needed. The time occupied in the reduction of an adult varies from 1 to 13 hours, and the ashes weigh, as before stated, from 5 to 7 lb. Cremation having been declared legal in England, it is expected that some of the large cities will very shortly possess these media for destruction of the body by fire. The human body consists of 60 per cent. of water and 40 per cent. of solid matter; and quickly to reduce this to ashes requires a strong furnace. A special form of Siemens' regenerator furnace is that which has found most favour in Germany, but elsewhere only the Gorini form of apparatus is used. The Gorini crematory furnace consists of a receiver, a furnace, and a chimney. The receiver is a flatbottomed chamber open at each end, one of which communicates with the upper part of the furnace, and the other with the lower part of the chimney. The furnace, which discharges its heat into the receiver, is somewhat spacious, sufficiently so to produce the necessary heat by means of wood fuel only if found requisite. The chimney is also of sufficient sectional area to remove the products of combustion from the receiver as well as the furnace, and high enough to permit the draught to keep above the gases pervading the receiver, and prevent any dispersion of heat or smoke through the apertures around the receiver or cremation chamber. In order to perfectly overcome the idea as to any organic molecules escaping from the shaft, a grating is placed near the base of the chimney, and upon this a portion of coke is kept burning. The products of animal combustion which issue still highly heated from the receiver, are subjected to higher temperature in passing through the burning coke, and any organic matter which may have resisted or escaped the first combustion is destroyed by the second, and mixes harmlessly with the atmosphere. The literature of the subject began with Thompson's Treatment of the Body after Death (1874); Erichsen's Cremation of the Dead (1887); Ullersperger's Urne oder Grab (1874); and some works by Italian doctors. The Transactions (vol. ii.) of the Cremation Society of England contain a complete bibliography on the subject up to date. Since 1874 upwards of 3000 works and pamphlets have been published on this subject in various countries. [While this volume was passing through the press, the author of the above article died, and his body was cremated at Woking.-ED.] Crémieux, ISAAC ADOLPHE, jurist and politician, was born of Jewish parents at Nîmes, 30th April 1796, and became an advocate in Paris in 1830. In 1842 he entered the Chamber, and in 1848 was a member of the provisional government Imprisoned at the coup d'état, he subsequently confined himself to professional work, till 1870, when he was a member of the government of national defence. He was made a senator in 1876, and died 10th February 1880. He was the founder of the Alliance Israélite Universelle. Cremona, a decayed city of Northern Italy, on the north bank of the Po, 60 miles SE. of Milan by rail, and 46 E. of Pavia. Cremona has some fine buildings-the principal the cathedral (1107–1606), with gorgeous interior; the neigh |