CYSTIN

by the accumulation of products within cavities normally present, or (2) by the independent formation of a cavity. Of the first, wens, collections of secretion in a sebaceous gland of the skin, are the commonest example; instances of the second are evstie tumours of the Ovary (q.v.) and the sacs developed in connection with certain parasites ('bladder-worms; see HYDATIDS, ENTOZOA). The structure of their walls is still more variable than their mode of origin; sometimes they are thin and transparent, sometimes dense and fibrous. They are either simple or compound, unilocular or multilocular; they are sometimes small, numerous, and separate; in other cases they grow to an enormous size, and are very complex. Some cysts are present at birth, and remain through life almost unchanged; some increase rapidly in size, and form large and dangerous tumours. For Cystic Worms, Cysticercus, see BLadder-worm, CESTOIDS, TAPEWORM.

Cystin, or CYSTIC OXIDE, forms a rare variety of urinary Calculus (q.v.). Its chemical composi tion is CH,NSO,, and it forms a whitish or dirty yellow deposit consisting of six-sided crystalline tablets. It is soluble in ammonia, and is thereby distinguished from the similar crystals of uric acid.

Cystitis, inflammation of the Bladder (q.v.). Cystoidea (Gr. cystis, a bladder'), a group of fossil echinoderms, so called from their spherical or bladder like form. The spherical body was inclosed by calcareous plates, and resembled that of the erinoids in general form. It was borne on a short stalk, or was sessile. See CRINOIDEA.

Cythe'ra. See CERIGO.

Cy'tisus, a large genus of Leguminosa, suborder Papilionacea, small trees or shrubs, with ternate leaves, and yellow, white, or purple flowers, natives chiefly of the warmer temperate parts of the Old World, but frequently introduced on account of the beauty of their flowers (see LABUR NUM). In its widest sense the genus may include the common Broom (q.v.).

Cyzicus, the ancient name of a peninsula of Asia Minor, projecting into the Sea of Marmora, which lies immediately to the SE. of the island of Marmora, and is about 9 miles in length. It was at one time an island. In early times Cyzicus was a Milesian colony, and the city of Cyzicus, which was not finally ruined till its conquest by the Arabs in 675, is described by Strabo as one of the first cities in Asia, alike for extent and splendour.

Czar, more properly Tsar, Tar, or Zar, the title of the emperors of Russia. The word occurs early in Old Slavonic, equivalent to king or kaiser, and is connected with the Latin Casar, continued in the Roman empire as a title of honour long after the imperial house itself had become extinct. In the Slavonic Bible the word basileus is rendered by ezar; Casar (kaisar) by Cesar. In the Russian chronicles also the Byzantine emperors are styled ezars, as are also the khans of the Mongols who, ruled over Russia. The title of the Russian princes was kmaz ("prince') and veliki kniaz ('great prince'); and the princes of Moscow took the title of czar as rulers of the Mongolians. As individual subkhans made themselves independent of the kingdom of the Golden Horde, they also assumed the title of czar; thus, there were czars of Siberia, of Kasan, and of Astrakhan. The conquest of the Golden Horde by the khan of the Crimea in 1480 made the grand-princes of Moscow completely independent; and upon them devolved the absolute power which the ezars had exercised over all Russia Ivan IV. the Terrible first caused him

self to be crowned czar in 1547; from that time the title of czar became the chief title of the Muscovite rulers, and became practically the equivalent of emperor. The wife of the czar was named tzaritza (czarina); the sons, tzare witch; the daughters, tzarevna; but after the death of Alexei-Peter I.'s son-these titles were abolished, and the imperial princes were called grand-dukes, and the imperial princesses grandduchesses. In 1799 the Emperor Paul I. introduced the title of cesarewitch (not czarewitch) for his second son, the Grand-duke Constantine. The heir apparent and his wife are still called cesarevitch and cesarevna. Among the Russian people themselves, the emperor is more frequently called Gossudar (Hospodar, Lord') than czar. The term White Czar, belyj zar', comes down from Mongol times, and is merely equivalent to an independent, non-tribute-paying czar. See RUSSIA.

Czardasch, or CSÁRDÁS, a Hungarian national dance, consisting of two sections-a slow movement called a lassu or lassan, and a quickstep, the friss or friska, Both are always in or time, and in the same key. Examples on an extended scale occur in Liszt's Rhapsodies Hongroises.'

Czartoryski, ADAM GEORGE, son of Prince Adam Czartoryski (1734 1823), was born at Warsaw, 14th January 1770. Educated at Edin burgh and London, he returned to Poland, and took part against Russia in the war of 1794. Sent to St Petersburg as a hostage, he gained the friendship of the Grand-duke Alexander and the confidence of the Emperor Paul, who made him ambassador to Sardinia. When Alexander ascended the throne, he appointed Czartoryski assistant to the Minister of Foreign Affairs; and he took an active part in official life until after the of ice of it. As curator of the university

His

(1803) he exerted all his influence to keep alive a spirit of nationality; and when some of the students were sent to Siberia on a charge of sedition, Czartoryski resigned his office. successor reported to the emperor that the amalga mation of Russia and Lithuania had been delayed a century by Czartoryski. Russian favours could not deaden or even dull Czartoryski's pure patriotism. Into the revolution of 1830 he threw himself with all his heart. He was elected president of a provisional government, and in this capacity summoned a national diet, which in January 1831 declared the Polish throne vacant, and elected Czartoryski head of the national government. He inmediately devoted half of his large estates to the public service, and adopted energetic measures to meet the power of Russia. In August he resigned his post, but continued to fight as a common soldier. After the suppression of the rising (see POLAND), Czartoryski specially excluded from the general amnesty, and his estates in Poland confiscated escaped to Paris, where he afterwards resided, the liberal friend of his poor expatriated countrymen, and the centre of their hope of a revived nationality. In 1848 he liberated all his serts in Galicia, and during the Crimean war he ineffectually endeavoured to induce the allies to identify the cause of Poland with that of Turkey. He refused the amnesty offered to him by Alexander H., and died 15th July 1861. See his Memoirs, translated by Gielgud (1888).

Czaslan (Bohemian Cavar), a town of Bo hemia, 40 miles FSE. of Prague by rail, with manufactures of beet sugar and alcohol. Its church, in which the Hussite leader Ziska was buried, is surmounted by the highest steeple in Bohemia (290 feet). The place was the scene of

an important victory gained over the Austrians by Frederick the Great, 17th May 1742. Pop. 6878.

Czechs (also spelt Tzechs, Tschechs, Cesks, Cheskians, &c.), the most westerly branch of the great Slavic family of nations. In the latter half of the 5th century A.D. the Czechs migrated from their lands in Carpathia, on the upper Vistula, to the country now known as Bohemia. Other Slavic tribes came too; but in the course of time the Czechs gained such an ascendency that, in the 9th century, their name was commonly applied to the whole Slavic population of Bohemia (q.v.). Here, in Moravia, and in other parts of Austria, the Czechs now number in all some 7,000,000.

Czegled, a market-town of Hungary, 47 miles SE. of Pesth by rail. The inhabitants (1880), 24,872 in number, are employed principally in agricultural pursuits, the district around yielding much grain and red wine.

Czenstochau, or CZENSTOCHOWA, a town of Poland, 148 miles SW. of Warsaw by rail. A Catholic monastery, founded here about 1382, is visited yearly by fifty to sixty thousand pilgrims, as possessing the famous Black Virgin,' a murky painting of Byzantine origin, but ascribed by legend to St Luke himself. In 1655 Czenstochau was the only place in Poland which offered resistance to Charles Gustavus of Sweden, when 70 monks and 150 soldiers for 38 days held out against 10,000 men. The inhabitants, 15,500 in number, carry on a considerable trade in sacred pictures and rosaries.

Czermak, JOHANN NEPOMUK, physiologist, was born, 17th June 1828, in Prague, studied at Vienna, Breslau, and Würzburg, was professor successively at Cracow, Pesth, Jena, and Leipzig, and died 16th September 1873. He was the founder of laryngoscopy. His principal work is Der Kehlkopfspiegel (2d ed. 1863), and his collected works were published in 1879.

Czerno'witz, the capital of the Austrian province of Bukowina, stands 720 feet above sealevel, near the right bank of the Pruth, 165 miles SE. of Lemberg by rail. Among its buildings are the palace of a Greek archbishop (1875); his cathedral (1864), on the model of St Isaac's at St

CZERNY

Petersburg; the Armenian church (1875); the synagogue (1877); and the Austria Monument' (1875). The university, founded in 1875, has 36 instructors and some 225 students. The manufactures and trade are steadily developing. Pop. (1869) 33,884; (1880) 45,600, of whom 14,449 were Jews.

Czerny George (Turkish Karadjordje)—i.e. Black George, the leader of the Servians in their struggles for independence, was born of poor parents, 21st December 1766, near Kragujevatch. He took part in a rising against the Turks in 1787, and was subsequently a cattle dealer. In August 1801, a band of janizaries broke into his dwelling, and plundered it. Czerny fled, vowing vengeance. He soon collected a band of mal contents, and commenced a sort of guerilla war. Gradually his numbers increased, and in 1804 he captured the fortress of Schabaz. Subsequently, he invested Belgrade, and in the beginning of 1806 routed the Turks at the rivers Drina and Morawa. Assisted secretly by Russia, he captured Belgrade in December 1806. After the treaty of Slobosje (8th July 1808), he was elected governor by the people, and recognised as Prince of Servia by the sultan. The French invasion of Russia in 1812 compelled the latter country to let Servia shift for itself. Hostilities recommenced; the Turks were successful, and Czerny had to flee to Austria, where he lived for some time. Meanwhile, the freedom of Servia had again been secured through the leadership of Milosch Obrenowitch; and when, in July 1817, Czerny returned, he was murdered at the instigation of Prince Milosch.

Czerny, KARL, pianoforte teacher and composer, born at Vienna in 1791, was the pupil and friend of Beethoven, and also gained much from Clementi and Hummel. Besieged by pupils, he would teach only those who showed especial talent; among these were Liszt, Thalberg, and Döhler. Living in great retirement, he devoted much of his time to composition; a mass of MS. is preserved in the archives of Vienna, while his published works number over 900, of which his Theoretical and Practical School is the best known, and probably also the most valuable. He died 15th July 1857.

D

is the fourth letter in our own alphabet, as well as in the Phonician, Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, from which last it was immediately derived. The original symbol in the Egyp tian hieroglyphs was the picture of a hand. When taken over by the Phoenicians, this sign was called daleth, 'the door,' from a fancied resemblance to the curtained aperture of a tent, rather than to the wooden quadrangular door of a house. This resemblance may be traced in the Greek letter 4, whose name delta was derived from the Semitic daleth. In Phoenician and the oldest Greek, the letter had a short tail, A, but as this form differed very little from that of B, and hardly at all from that of R, the three letters were differentiated, B acquiring a second loop, R a tail, while D lost the downward prolongation of the stem.

In cursive Greek the letter was rounded, and acquired the form 8, which is due to the ligature connecting it with the following letter. These changes are shown in the table given in Vol. I., page 187, which also explains the singular process whereby, in the minuscule form d, the loop of D has been transferred from the right of the stem to the left. In the Aramean alphabets the loop opened out, as is seen in the Hebrew

The sound of D is the soft dental mute. It has, like t, an affinity for n, and is often brought in as a sort of shadow to facilitate the utterance of this letter. It is intrusive in such words as sound, compound, lend, riband, gender, thunder, kindred. Sometimes it disappears, as in the case of cruel from crudelis, or winnow from windewe. It is often assimilated to the following consonant, especially in compounds derived from the Latin, as in the words accept, attain, allocution, appear, affirm, arrogant, gossip. It is sometimes replaced by 1, r, or b, as in the words lacrima, Ulysses, lingua, arbiter, meridies, bellum, bonus, bis. By Grimm's Law a primitive d becomes t in English, and in German: as in the words decem, ten, zehn; or duo, two, zwei. A primitive dh becomes in Greek, th in German, f in Latin, and d in English; as the words np, thier, fera, and deer. Di followed by a vowel sometimes becomes j, as in journal from diurnal.

D), the Roman numeral for 500, arose out of 10, the half of CI), which was the old way of writing O, the primitive sign for 1000, which was afterwards written M.

D. in Music, is the second note in the natural scale. See MUSIC, SCALE.

Dab (Pleuronectes limanda), a species of Flounder (q.v.), common on European coasts, but not occurring in the Mediterranean. It is distinguishable from plaice and flounder by its lightbrown, or ashen gray colour, with small irregular dark spots, by the roughness of its small, close-set scales, and by its more arched lateral line. Its length is from 8 to 16 inches. It is common all round Britain, and in the Firth of Forth is known as the Salt-water Fluke. Its flavour excels that of flounder. A rather larger species, of even more

the common dab by the fact that the first ray of the anal fin is not spiny. The brownish colour is sometimes prettily mottled.

Dabchick. See GREBE.

Da Capo (Ital., from the beginning'), a term in Music, frequently placed at the end of a part or movement, indicating that the performer must return to the beginning of the movement, or (dal Segno) to some other part of it marked with the sign, and finish where the word fine is placed. The words are generally abbreviated thus, D.C.. sometimes D.C. al fine.

Dacca, a city of Bengal Proper, 150 miles NE. of Calcutta, on the north bank of the Buriganga, occupies an area of 8 sq. m., and consists of a dull esplanade and one long street meeting at right angles, with a complementary network of narrow, crooked lanes. Its position commands the principal waterways of the delta, and it thus enjoys singular facilities in the way of inland navigation. On this account it was chosen, about 1610, as the seat of the Mohammedan government of Bengal, which rank it retained, except during an interval of twenty years, until 1704. The suburbs extended 15 miles northward, where mosques and brick buildings are still found buried in thick jungle. In the 18th century it became widely celebrated for the delicate texture of its muslins, and in conneetion with this manufacture the French and the Dutch, as well as the English, had extensive estab lishments in the place. After 1817, however, the annual value of the trade declined, under the competition of Manchester piece goods, and the aspect of the city changed with the disastrous decay of its staple industry. Its busy marts were deserted; in many quarters the streets, with their desolate, abandoned houses, were overgrown with jungle; and the population fell from 200.000 in 1800 to 69,212 in 1872. Since then the fortunes of Dacca have somewhat brightened; the general development of trade throughout the presidency has brought back a share of its former prosperity, and the opening of the Dacca and Maimansingh State Railway in 1886 has notably increased the transit trade. A small colony of muslin weavers still survives, and other manufactures are coarse cotton cloth, embroidery, silver-work, shell carving, and pottery. Besides the Dacca College (1835), with about 300 students, there are many good schools, and a fine

hospital; in 1878 a system of water-works was opened, and the sanitary condition has since improved. Pop. (1881) 79,076.—DACCA DISTRICT has an area of 2797 sq. m., and consists of a level plain, intersected by a network of rivers and artificial watercourses. Two-thirds of the district is under cultivation; food-crops, oil-seeds, jute, cotton, safflower, and sugar-cane are grown. Trade is carried on chiefly by water, and the rivers are crowded at all seasons with steamers and native craft; the adventurous boatmen of the district have a name throughout Bengal. Floods, blight, or drought never seriously affect the district, but earthquakes are of common occurrence. Outside Dacca city sanitation is unthought of; fevers, dysentery, and goitre are among the endemic diseases, and epidemics of cholera and smallpox are not infrequent. Pop. (1872) 1,852,993; (1881) 2,116,350, of whom 59 per cent. were Moham

medans.

Dace, DARE, or DART (Leuciscus vulgaris), a fresh-water fish in the carp family Cyprinidæ (q.v.), and of the same genus as the roach, chub, minnow, &c. It chiefly inhabits the deep and clear water of quiet streams. It is found in Italy, France, Germany, &c., and in some of the rivers of England, but is very local. In form it is not unlike the roach, but rather more elongated; the mouth is rather larger, the scales smaller. The upper parts are dusky blue, becoming paler on the sides, and

Dace (Leuciscus vulgaris).

passing into white on the belly, the cheeks and gillcovers silvery white. It measures about 8 inches in length, and never exceeds a pound in weight. The dace is gregarious, and swims in shoals. It spawns in early summer. Its flesh is preferred to that of the roach, but is not highly esteemed. The dace is perhaps the liveliest and most active of the Cyprinidæ, and affords the angler fair sport both with fly and bait.

Dachshund, a name adopted from the German, signifying 'badger-dog.' The dachshund has been common in Germany for many years, but was unknown in England until introduced by the late Prince Consort towards the middle of the 19th century; it then became very fashionable and popular, but is not now so common. The dachshund is a small dog, weighing about 20 lb., with short crooked fore-legs, and an extremely long body, its head rather resembling that of a miniature bloodhound. Its strong, large paws enable it to dig rapidly. Its colour should be black and tan, or brown. On the Continent the dachshund is extensively used for covert-shooting, but rarely so in Britain, as his headstrong disposition somewhat spoils his usefulness. The dachshund is closely akin to the old English Turn-spit, employed to drive a wheel by which roasting-spits were turned. Dacia, the land of the ancient Daci or Getæ, including the country between the Danube, the Theiss, the Carpathians, and the Pruth. The Dacians were the most valiant of all the tribes of Thracian origin (see THRACE). In the reign of Augustus they began to molest the Roman allies, and indeed from this time there was almost continual fighting between the Romans and the Daci,

DACTYL

who actually, under their brave king, Decebalus, compelled their civilised enemies, in the reign of Domitian, to purchase peace by paying tribute. In 101 the Emperor Trajan crossed the Danube, and after five years' desperate fighting, conquered the whole country, and formed it into a Roman province. Roman colonists were sent into the country, great roads were opened up, and a bridge was built over the Danube-the ruins of which are still extant. Under Aurelian the Danube was made the boundary of the empire, and Dacia was resigned to the barbarians, its Roman colonies being transplanted to Mosia.

Dacier, ANDRÉ, a French scholar, born of Protestant parents at Castres, in Upper Languedoc, 6th April 1651, studied at Saumur under Tanneguy Lefèbre; and in 1672 came to Paris, where in 1683 he married Anna (1654-1720), his old preceptor's daughter, and two years later was admitted with her to the Roman Catholic Church. Dacier subsequently became royal librarian, member of the Academy of Inscriptions and of the French Academy, and perpetual secretary of the latter. He died 18th September 1722. His works include a Delphin edition of Festus and Verrius Flaccus (1681), as well as indifferent translations of Horace, the Poetics of Aristotle, some of the Dialogues of Plato, Epictetus, and Plutarch's Lives. His wife's works include Delphin editions of Florus, Aurelius Victor, Eutropius, Dictys Cretensis, and Dares Phrygius; and translations of Anacreon, Sappho, some plays of Plautus and Aristophanes, Terence, the Iliad and the Odyssey. Her admiration of Homer was more unbounded than discriminating, and involved her in many controversies.

Dacoits, a name used for brigands herding in gangs in various parts of India, and living by dacoity or robbery with violence. According to the report of the general superintendent of the Thuggee and Dacoity Department in 1887, there were over 9000 men practising dacoity in India, which in some districts is carried on with great ferocity. In the Gwalior territory forty-six persons were killed by dacoits; and of the seventy-five villages in the Chanderi district, thirty-six had been dacoited since 1880. After the annexation, dacoity was very prevalent in Burma.

Amsterdam, the son of a Portuguese Jew, 14th Da Costa, ISAAC, a Dutch poet, born at January 1798. He studied at Leyden; and in 1822, a year after receiving the degree of doctor of philosophy, he embraced Christianity. His poems speedily gained him such reputation that, on the death in 1831 of Bilderdijk, whose warm friendship he had enjoyed, Da Costa succeeded him in the first place among the poets of Holland, which he held till his death, on 28th April 1860. His principal works are to be found in his Poëzij (2 vols. 1821-22), Politieke Poëzy (1854), and Hesperiden (1855). His Battle of Nieupoort, the last of his poems, is one of his masterpieces. Da Costa also made essays in the domain of history and theology, the most important of which, his Israel and the Gentiles, has been translated into English.

Dacotahs. See SIOUX, AMERICAN INDIANS. Dacry'dium, a genus of coniferous trees of the yew family, but more allied to Podocarpus. There are twelve species-Malayan, Tasmanian, and of New Zealand. Dacrydium cupressinum of New Zealand is best known in Britain, on account of the beauty of its pendulous foliage. D. franklinii, the so-called Huon Pine, and D. taxifolium, the Kakaterra tree, yield valuable timber.

Dactyl (Gr. dactylos, finger'), the name of a measure or 'foot' in Greek and Latin versifica