Daghestan (mountain-land'), a triangular territory of Ciscaucasia, between the Caucasus and the west coast of the Caspian Sea. Area, 11,425 sq. m.; pop. (1883) 529,705. The surface is generally mountainous, being traversed by offsets from the Caucasus; the level tracts are chiefly near the coast, and here and in the valleys the land is very fertile. The country is well watered, the climate generally mild in the lowlands, and dry, except along the coast, where the rainfall is considerable. In the highlands large flocks of sheep are herded. The chief town is Derbend (q.v.). See CAUCASUS, and SHAMYL; also Cunynghame's Daghestan (1872).

Dago, an island near the entrance of the Gulf of Finland, forming part of the Russian government of Esthonia, and separated by the narrow channel called Sele-sund from the island of Oesel on the south. Area, 367 sq. m.; pop. 15,000, of whom one-third are Swedes and Germans. The coast is rugged, and the soil fertile only in the south and south-west; inland there are large forests and swamps (54 sq. m.).

Dagoba, the common name in Ceylon for a Buddhist tope. See TOPE.

Dagobert was the name of several of the Merovingian kings of France, the first of the name reigning from 631 to 638. See FRANCE.

Dagon, the national god of the Philistines, half-man, half-fish, is mentioned in the Old Testament as having temples at Gaza and Ashdod. Several names of places prove that the worship of Dagon existed also in other parts of Palestine. It seems to have come to Canaan from Babylonia, the Assyrian monuments presenting a figure with the body of a man and the tail of a fish, and the cuneiform inscriptions containing the name of a god Dakan or Dagan, which is probably identical with Dagon. Baudissin favours the old derivation of the name from dag ('fish'), with the formative syllable -on. Dagon and the fish-goddess Derketo or Atargatis probably answered to each other as male and female water-deities.

Daguerreotype is the name of the photographs fixed on a plate of copper thinly coated with silver by the successive action of the vapours of iodine, bromine, and mercury. Louis Daguerre, after whom the invention is named, was born in Normandy in 1789, was a scene-painter in Paris, made a famous diorama in 1822, and devoted the rest of his life mainly to perfecting the processes of photography, from 1826 till 1833 in conjunction with M. Niépce. He wrote two works on the subject, and died in the neighbourhood of Paris, 12th July 1851. The history of the invention is given at PHOTOGRAPHY.

Dahabeeah, a boat used by voyagers on the Nile, which varies in size, has one or two masts, and accommodation for from two to eight passengers, including a raised cabin on the after-deck. The boat sails, is rowed, or is dragged by ropes, according to circumstances.

Dahl, JOHANN CHRISTIAN CLAUSEN, a Norwegian landscape-painter (1788-1857), who from 1821 onward was professor of Painting at Dresden. Dahlak, a group of three islands, with many smaller rocks, in the Red Sea, off the Bay of Massowah. They were famous in Roman times for their pearl-fisheries, but the beds have long since been exhausted and abandoned. The inhab

DAHLIA

itants number about 1500, are under the rule of a sheik holding authority from Egypt, and carry on a trade with the Arabian coast.

Dahlgren, KARL FREDRIK, Swedish poet and humorist, born at Stensbruk in Ostergötland, 20th June 1791, studied at Upsala, and acted from 1815 as preacher at Stockholm, where he died, 2d May 1844. As a writer he made his début in Atterbom's Phosphorus, and afterwards published novels, humorous tales, poems, and dramas. His works fill 5 vols. (1847-52).

Dahlgren Gun is so called after John Adolph Dahlgren (1809-70), an officer in the United States navy, by whom it was introduced in 1850. It is a muzzle-loading, cast-iron, smooth-bore gun, with great thickness of metal at the breech. Many Dahlgren guns are still in the United States service. In 1883 six of 10-inch calibre and muzzleloaders were converted into 8-inch breech-loading rifle guns, by lining and strengthening them with! wrought-iron coils.

Dahlia (Dahlia Georgina)-after Dahl, a Swedish botanist, and pupil of Linnæus-a genus of large perennial composites (sub-order Tubuliflora, family Asteroidea). It was first brought from the botanic garden of Mexico to that of Madrid in 1784, whence it reached England in

1789, and France in 1802, while in 1804 Humboldt sent a fresh supply of seed to Berlin. Its extraordinary variability soon attracted the attention of florists, who brought to bear on it all the resources of selection and crossing, with so much success that by about the middle of the present century no from D. variabilis or D. coccinea or their hybrids, fewer that 2000 varieties had been described, all and chiefly from the first named. For a long time only double' dahlias were cultivated, but of late disc remain tubular, has again come into fashion; years the single dahlia, in which the florets of the while among double dahlias the less regular cactus dahlia is highly esteemed. They are easily culti vated, and propagated by seeds, cuttings, or tubers; but the tubers require to be taken up and stored in a dry place out of the reach of frost. They flower luxuriantly in autumn, until cut off by the first frosts. On account of the quantity of inulin in their tubers, they are cultivated for food in Mexico, but similar attempts in Europe have failed

DAHLMANN

because of their unpalatableness. See Nicholson's or other Dictionary of Gardening, also any florist's catalogue.

Dahlmann, FRIEDRICH CHRISTOPH, German historian, was born May 13, 1785, at Wismar. His earlier studies in Copenhagen and Halle were devoted to archæology and philology; but his attention was subsequently directed to the study of politics and the history of the middle ages. From 1813 on, he filled the chair of History at Kiel, and in 1829 was appointed to that of Political Science in Gottingen, where he published (1830) his invaluable Quellenkunde der deutschen Geschichte. Banished in 1837 by King Ernst Angust of Hanover, on account of his protest against the abolition of the Hanoverian constitution, he went to Leipzig, next to Jena, where he wrote his historical masterpiece, Geschichte von Danemark (3 vols. 1840-43). In 1842 he became Professor of History at Bonn, and took a prominent part in the political affairs of Germany after the movement in 1848, heading the constitutional herals, who were unfortunately too reasonable to be successful. At the close of the struggle, he returned to his academic duties, to which he devoted himself till his death, 5th December 1860. See Life, by A. Springer (2 vols. Leip. 1870-72 ).

Dahn, JULIUS Sophus FelIX, publicist, historian, and poet, was born at Hamburg, 9th February 1834, the son of a well-known actor and actress. He studied law, philosophy, and history at Munich and Berlin, became extraordinary professor at Munich (1862), next year ordinary professor at Wurzburg, and in 1872 was appointed to the chair of German Jurisprudence at Königs berg. Among his contributions to public law are Das Kriegsrecht (1870), Handelsrechtliche Vortrage (1875), Deutsches Rechtsbuch (1877), and Deutsches

Privatrecht (1878). Of his historical works the chief are Prokopius von Casarea (1865), Die Könige der Germanen (1861-71), Westgotische Studien (1874), Langobardische Studien (1876), Urgeschichte der

germanischen und romanischen Völker (3 vols.

1881 84, and Geschichte der deutschen Urzeit (1885). Dahn's versatility is as remarkable as his erudi. tion is profound. He has written a series of popular historical romances, and of lyrical and dramatic poems. Of the former may here be named, Ein Kampf um Rom (1876), one of the most powerful of modern German novels, Odhins Irost (1880), and Die Kreuzfahrer (1885).

Dahna. See ARABIA, Vol. I. p. 362. Dahomey, a kingdom of Western Africa, extending inland from the Slave Coast, in about 6 15 -7 30 N. lat., and 1 30-230 E. long. Its limits, however, are not clearly defined, and it is only certain that their extent has been greatly overestimated; the seaboard is contined to a district of 35 miles, between Cotanu and Mount Pulloy, and elsewhere the kingdom is encircled by tribes either subjugated or in active hostility. The boundaries of Dahomey and Ashanti do not meet to the north of the Avon lagoon, as shown on some maps. The long lagoon which, shut in from the ocean by a protecting bank of sand, affords an easy route along nearly the whole of this coast, extends in Dahomey, from its western frontier almost to the Denham lagoon, in the east. About midway is the port of Whydah, whence a road extends inland to Abomey, a distance of 65 miles. Dense forests and dismal swamps cover nearly two-thirds of this distance, but from the Great Swamp of Agrime vast undulating plains rise for many miles, in the direction of the Kong Mountains. The Avon and Denham lagoons receive the rivers of the country, none of which are very important. The soil is a rich, red color e, and is extremely fertile.

Groves of oil-palms encircle each town, and palmoil is made in large quantities. Maize, beans, and peas, as well as cassava, yams, sweet potatoes, limes, oranges, pine apples, and other tropical fruits, grow in splendid luxuriance; cotton, sugar, and spices of all kinds are also grown, and sheep, goats, swine, and poultry are raised, though not in large numbers. Cotton cloth is made, and weapons and tools are forged from native iron.

The people are negroes, of the Ewe group, generally of small stature, but very robust and active. They are sociable, equally fond of dancing and of rum, but warlike and prone to theft. The Dahoman kingdom dates from the beginning of the 18th century, and reached its zenith under Gezo, who ruled from about 1818 to 1858. Since then its power has declined, and even its population has fallen off; but little reliance can be placed on the estimates of the numbers, which range from 150,000 to 900,000, the former number being probably most correct. The army may be taken at 10,000 men; the Amazons (devoted to celibacy), who are distinguished for their bravery and ferocity, may perhaps be limited to 1000. Fetich-worship prevails, taking the form of serpent-worship along the coast; a temple with over a hundred of these sacred snakes exists at Whydah. The king is the most absolute of despots. Wholesale murder is one of the chief features in religious and state ceremonies; but, according to Sir Richard Burton, who has been greatly exaggerated, and they are princivisited Dahomey in 1863, the number of the victims pally foreign captives. Still, as many as 500 human victims have been sacrificed at one of the grand revenue formerly depended greatly upon the sale of customs which take place every October. The slaves; but the vigilance of the cruisers employed to prevent the traffic has ruined the trade. Hence place are a thing of the past. In 1876 the coast of the monster slave hunts which periodically took Great Britain, on account of an outrage on a British Dahomey was placed under a strict blockade by subject, for which the king of Dahomey refused ing plain, nearly surrounded by marshes. It is about satisfaction. - ABOMEY, the capital, stands on a roll

miles in circumference, and is surrounded by a There are three palaces belonging to the king here, deep ditch and clay walls, pierced by six gates, several large squares, and a number of farms, which Whydah has a pop. of about 12,000; and Cana, are cultivated within the city. Pop about 30,000, where is the king's country residence, 8 miles SE. of Abomey by a good road, about 3000, See Burton's Mission to Gelele, King of Dahomey (new ed. 1864); Skertehly, Dahomey as It is (1874); and Bouche, La Cote des Esclaves et le Dahomey (Paris, 1885).

Dahra, a district of Algeria, to the east of Mortaganem, and near the coast. In June 1945 a tribe of Kabyles took refuge in a cave here, and on their repeatedly refusing to surrender, Pelissier, the French commander, caused them to be suffocated by kindling large fires of green branches at the mouth of the cave. their death. See PELISSIER. Some 300 Kabyles thus met

Daimiel, a town of Spain, 28 miles ENE of Ciudad Real by rail, with manufactures of woollens, brandy, &e. Pop. 9652.

Daimios, the old territorial nobles of Japan, who, before the revolution of 1871, enjoyed almost absolute power within their own domains, paving little more than nominal allegiance to the mikado, At the restoration of the nakado, however, they were obliged to surrender their castles and musterrolls to the government, who took away their privileges and relieved them of the duty of paying allowances to their retainers. See JAPAN.

Dairy is a word used in speaking of a number of cows kept for milking purposes, or to indicate the buildings in which Milk (q.v.) is sold or manufactured into Cheese (q. v.) or Butter (q.v.). The byre or cow-house should be connected by a covered way with the milk-house proper, and the arrangements for ventilation made so perfect that it should not be possible to detect in the vicinity of the milk any smell from the cows, pigs, or other source. The milk-house should on no pretext be made a common storeroom for meat, game, onions, or any material which will taint the air and then the milk and the cheese or butter, as the case may be. The first essential in a dairy is the absolute cleanness not only of the floors and walls of the building, but of all its furnishings. This is secured by daily washing and by the scalding or steaming of all vessels or implements which come in contact with milk or its products; the object being to destroy the microbes which live and multiply in milk and bring about its acidity and decay. The thermometer in the dairy should stand at 55° F. in summer, and 60° F. in winter. At temperatures higher than these milk is liable to spoil, owing to the greater activity of the above-mentioned germs; many degrees below this it gets chilled, and will not manipulate satisfactorily. An abundant supply of pure water is necessary, and means for boiling water must also be provided, not only to secure scalding water for washing, but to raise, when necessary, the temperature of the products of milk during manufacture, or maintain a suitably high temperature in the air of the cheese-room or the milk-house. A small steam or gas engine is frequently employed in a dairy conducted on a large scale, to supply the power necessary for a centrifugal Cream Separator (q.v.), also for churning whole milk or cream, and at times for driving the compressed-air refrigerator. The latter is used to lower the temperature of vaults in which fresh, summer-made butter is stored until the winter season, when the prices for good grass' butter are high. As the cost of the necessary machinery is considerable, the method can only be made to pay when the business is extensive.

Dairying has developed much within recent years. The growing demand for milk in large towns has increased the volume of the milk-trade, and modified the system of management. Summer dairying, while suitable for the making of cheese, and so far for butter also, must be supplemented by winter dairying to keep up the supply of milk and fresh butter throughout the year. For summer dairying it is usually arranged that the cows calve during March, April, and May, so that they go to pasture when they are coming to the period at which, with a proper supply of succulent food and suitable surroundings, they should develop their greatest yield of milk. They lie out day and night, and have the whole summer and early autumn before them the period in which grass, the most natural food of a cow, is most abundant, best, and cheapest. In some instances the grass is supplemented by 2 or 3 lb. a day of cotton-seed or other cake, and when the grass begins to fail in autumn, some variety of green food, as cabbages, rape, vetches, &c. As frost begins to appear the cows are housed at night, and in spite of liberal and careful feeding, fall off in their yield of milk. Nevertheless, it is the better practice to house them in good time, because they keep in better condition during winter than if left out too long, and for the few remaining weeks of the milking period they give a larger average return. All naturally dry off,' some more rapidly than others. Milking should be stopped abruptly at the end of the year-experience points to this being the best and simplest method of drying off cows at this season. After two or three months of rest,

the cows calve, and this goes on year by year from the age of two or three (depending upon size and condition) until ten years old, when all should, without exception, be replaced by heifers. A ring appears on the horn to mark each year after the third year, and by this the age can be determined. Where winter dairying is also practised, the cows are made to calve at all times of the year, so that a number come in possibly every week, to replace others that have ceased to milk satisfactorily. The temperature of the cow-house has to be maintained at such a high point, to keep up the full flow of milk during winter, and the feeding is made so forcing and unnatural that the constitutions of cows would show the effects of this high-pressure system if they were kept to calve another year. In consequence, few farmers who adopt this system of management retain their cows more than one milking period. They shut them in the house both summer and winter, and give a full supply of food all the while, to maintain their condition. Some send them to auction as soon as the yield of milk falls to the net cost of its production. Others attempt to feed the cows after this until they put on flesh, so that they command a higher total price and a higher rate per stone in the fat market than ordinary milking cows. Unquestionably the system of changing cows after one milking period pays farmers who are favourably situated for the disposal of milk to private families, better than keeping them for a number of years and bringing them round' to calve each season; yet there is one serious drawback as regards the suspension of the improvement of dairy cattle, by neglecting the selection of calves for rearing from the best milking mothers. The system is only possible, without doing serious injury to the breeds of cattle, because it is not general throughout the country, but confined to dairies supplying milk to large centres of population.

Eight to ten cows is a sufficient number for each milker, and the operation should be performed as quietly and as expeditiously as possible. Men are usually employed in England, and women in Scotland. When cows give a large flow of milk, or when it is wanted for town consumption, milking is done thrice daily; but in the great majority of cases throughout the country it is only performed morning and evening. Heavy milking cows consume a large quantity of water, which should be supplied to them at least twice daily. Cows not in milk are often allowed to drink only once a day, though it would be better to let them do so twice. To offer tepid water to a cow immediately after calving is an unnatural and altogether unnecessary precaution; she should have cold, but not iced, water in small quantities, and given frequently until she is satisfied. Cows consuming a large amount of sloppy food and roots do not require much water.

It is important that the water should be pure and clean. Outbreaks of typhoid fever among children have been traced to cows drinking water contam. inated with the germs of this disease. Though sewage irrigation grass is extensively used, under the soiling' system, by cowfeeders near to towns (Edinburgh, for example), no injurious results have been traced to this practice. Irrigation grass has been largely superseded within recent years by supplies of better quality got from immense crops of Italian ryegrass (Lolium italicum), grown without irrigation by means of heavy and repeated dressings of nitrate of soda. In no place can this system be seen to greater perfection than around Edinburgh. In some parts clover and vetches take the place of ryegrass. Succulent food is essential for the production of large returns of milk. As the grass season ends in October, the succulent portion of

DAIRY

food may be derived from brewers' and distillers' grains (1 bushel per day being a full allowance for a large cow), and from turnips-a favourite variety at present being the Fosterton hybrid. Turnips, when given in excessive quantities, produce an objectionable taste in the milk and butter, but as I an ingredient in a liberal and well-balanced diet they may be used with impunity, where milk is the product wanted. Swedes and mangels are not so liable as common turnips to taint cow products, and as they keep well when stored, they are reserved for use during the winter and spring months. Cows in full milk require a daily allowance of perhaps 5 to 8 lb. of concentrated food-a mixture of various farinaceous meals and oil-seed cakes along with bran, which acts as a corrective as well as a food substance. Bean meal is prominent among the meals for encouraging a flow of rich milk and at the same time maintaining the condition of the cow. Tur nips, unless liberally supplemented, are liable to reduce the condition. The ingredients in the food mixture should be determined by their market prices from time to time. There is a decided advantage in giving a mixed food, as compared with one variety, provided a proper proportion is secured between the albuminoids and the carbo hydrates-one to five is a good ordinary average to aim at under ordinary circumstances, having estimated oil as equivalent to two and a I half times its weight of starch. Not only must the proportion of the components of a food mix ture be adjusted, but the total bulk of the food must be great enough to distend the stomach suthciently to promote healthy action in the diges tive system. About 30 lb. of dry food substance is a good allowance for a healthy milking cow of one of our large breeds. If that were given entirely in the form of concentrated food, such as meal and cake, the animal could not chew the cud, and impaction of the rumen would result. The practice of chaffing straw into very short lengths is associated with the same danger. Dry fodder, more especially straw, is vastly improved for milk cows by cooking-either steaming it, or throwing warm! water over it, and covering it up for a few hours, In spring, before the grass comes, the flow of milk in newly calved cows is often largely developed and maintained by treating hay in this fashion, and supplying them with the hay tea and the solid residue mixed with meal. When very large quantities of concentrated food are used, it is safer to add to the daily allowance of each cow from 1 to 2 lb. of molasses, which supplies not only a valuable ingredient of food, but maintains a healthy action in the organs of digestion. Without some such precaution the percentages of ailments and deaths, in the case of cows kept under a high-pressure system of feeding, are likely to be considerably above an, average. Epsom salts should never be given to a cow in milk, as they permanently reduce the yield for the season; 8 to 10 lb. of warm treacle is more rapid in its action, safe, and free from injuri-, ous after-consequences. Bought concentrated food has another function than the above to perform. Its ash ingredients which pass away in the manure make good to the land the considerable loss of boneearth and other valuable substances which are removed in dairy products-more especially milk. See CATTLE, BUTTER, CHEESE, MILK.

Dairy Factories. Dairying, as a special business, has been extensively developed during the latter half of the 19th century Copyright 100 in 18 in America, the United States by J B. Lippine and Canada included, mainly Company through the introduction of the peculiarly Ameri en factory system, or associated dairying. The first factory was organised in the state of New York, by Jesse Williams, in 1860, and the result

E

The

being exceedingly favourable in regard to the quality and increased market value of the product (which was then cheese only), many other factories were organised, until in 1866 there were nearly 500 of them in operation in the state mentioned, the cost of these being about $1,000,000 (£200,000), with a stock of cows worth, at the then low valuation, at least $10,000,000. farms thus associated were then worth, for the million acres covered by them, not more than $40,000,000 (£8,000,000), or an average of $40 per acre. Five years later there were factories in several of the states and also in Canada; the list comprising 946 in the state of New York, 103 in Ohio, 46 in Illinois, 5 in Kentucky, 4 in Minnesota, 34 in Wisconsin, 26 in Massachusetts, 32 in Vermont, 14 in Pennsylvania, 7 in Iowa, 2 in Indiana, and 1 each in Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Kansas, and Connecticut. This associated industry became known in foreign countries as the Ameri can system of dairying,' and was quickly introduced into England, Sweden, Denmark, Switzerland, Holland, and other countries where the dairy business was carried on extensively, but it has not increased to anything like the extent it has in America. Very soon the manufacture of butter was introduced into the factories, as well as into special establishments for butter-making alone, the latter being called creameries, in contradistinction to the factories where cheese only was made, or where butter and skim milk cheese were made, or where the skim-milk was adulterated with fats and oils of various kinds, as substitutes for cream. It was about this time (1872) that the French oleo-margarine (a preparation of beef-fat) was introduced into the American dairy as a substitute for pure butter fat in the manufacture of cheese. It is a disagreeable truth to confess that this fraudulent dairy (?) product,' as it is called, still maintains a firm hold upon American dairying, and largely as a distinct frand, made use of for the purpose of making and selling adulterated cheese, and butter as well, for a pure product. And in addition to the fat of beeves, lard and cotton-seed oil are extensively used. Laws recently passed in several of the states and in the United States congress forbid the sale of butter so adulterated under heavy penalties, but no legislation as yet protects cheese from the fraudulent mixture. This stigma upon the American dairy (Canada, it may be said, is happily free from it) remains to this time a reproach and severe pecuniary damage to the dairy business.

American dairy cheese is made under the wellknown Cheddar system, so called, which is preval ent in parts of England, and in Ayrshire and other localities in Scotland. This is the American cheese which is so well known and highly regarded in Great Britain, when purely made under the best system of management. But a considerable variety of cheese is now made in imitation of foreign kinds, and is used by the foreign born citizens, who have not forgotten their acquired taste for the old homemade cheese,

Creameries, or butter-factories, came into use with the cheese-factories, but were not numerous until a way was found to utilise the skim milk by adding artificial fats to it. Then the combined butter and cheese factory turned out its butter and

its full-milk cheese together. This questionable method of business, however, became unpopular, and actual creameries came into vogue, and have rapidly increased during the past few years. In 1880 there were 3932 cheese and butter factories in the United States; in 1888 there were at least

5000, the largest numerical increase having been in creameries, In the ere umery, the cream gathered from 600 or 800 cows is worked up by one skilled

butter-maker, and the product is a good article of even quality all through; it is made in sufficient quantity for shipment and sale under the best conditions, and hence it commands a higher price than the best ordinary farm-dairy butter. It is made with the best apparatus, is packed and shipped in cold-storage or refrigerator cars, and reaches the domestic consumer within a week after it is made; and the foreign purchaser may have it upon his table within two weeks of the churning in the creamery, more than 4000 miles distant. These are advantages which the solitary buttermaker cannot secure; hence he can only get the creamery price by securing special customers near his dairy. A few so-called fancy dairies are able to secure 40, 50, or even 75 cents (1s. 8d. to 3s.) per pound for their butter, but even the best ordinary farm-dairy butter sells at a lower price than creamery butter, and fully three-fourths of it sells for less than half the price of the other.

American creamery butter is made by the deep setting system, borrowed from the Swedish method, and improved by American ingenuity. The milk is strained from the pail into cans 9 inches in diameter and 20 inches deep. These are set in tanks of water cooled by ice to 45°. At the end of twelve to twenty-four hours the cream has separated, and the milk is drawn off by a tap in the bottom of the can, view being given by a strip of glass let into the side of the can. The cream is then drawn off by itself. For the use of the creamery the quantity of cream is measured by the inch, and is paid for on the basis of so many inches to the pound of butter. One hundred and thirteen cubic inches of cream is taken as the standard in

this respect. The creamery gathers the cream once a day, and secures it perfectly sweet, while the skim-milk is also left sweet for the feeding of calves, for sale for consumption, or for the making of pork. The cream is kept until it is slightly acid before it is churned, making thus a quality of butter which keeps better and longer than that made from sweet cream. The churns most popular are those without any dash, being a cubical box turning on an axis passing through diagonal corners; or a barrel turning on an axis passing through its centre sidewise; or an oblong square box oscillating endwise in swinging supports. The action of churning thus consists of a dashing of the cream violently against the sides or ends of the churn, and, by concussion, causing the globules of fat in the cream to adhere together, and gradually coalesce and form small grains of butter. When these grains are as large as wheat-grains, or peas at the largest, the buttermilk is drawn off, cold water or weak brine is poured into the churn, and the churn is moved gently, to agitate and wash the butter. When the butter has been completely freed from milk, and no longer clouds the water, it is drained, and salted with finely-ground pure salt, at the rate of from oz. to 1 oz. to the pound of butter. The salt is easily incorporated with the small grains of butter, and after a rest of a few hours for the salt to absorb the excess of moisture from the butter and become completely dissolved, a butter-worker is used to press the butter, make it solid and even in texture, and as dry as possible. It is then packed in new spruce or oak tubs, or pails, of 20 to 50 lb., for domestic sale, or in 100-lb. firkins for export.

The dairy interest has reached vast proportions in America and Canada. At least 1,500,000 farms, with 10,000,000 cows and 100,000,000 acres of land, are devoted more or less closely to the various branches of the industry. In the most populous of the states, where the dairy is the principal agricultural employment, good dairy farms are valued at $100 (£20) per acre and upwards, as the buildings may be more valuable than

the average. The land held to be most suitable for the dairy is a rich limestone loam or gravel, that is productive of the best variety of grasses, especially the so-called blue grass (Poa pratensis), which affords the best pasturage. The best dairy districts are in the states of Vermont, New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Iowa, Wisconsin, Illinois, and the province of Ontario, in Canada.

The cows mostly kept upon dairy farms are the Dutch or North Holland, commonly called Holstein or Holstein-Friesian, Shorthorns, Ayrshire, the half or higher bred grades of these, and the common native' cows, the descendants of the promiscuous mixture of the various races of cattle brought into America. The most popular of these is the grade shorthorn, which may be purchased when in fresh milk; the Dutch cow is next in popular estimation, but it is scarce and high-priced, and is much less used. The average yield of these cows varies from 6000 to 8000 lb. of milk per year, or between calves, where calves are bred; the largest yield of the shorthorn and its grades averages 50 lb. daily, that of the Dutch cows is somewhat greater, and a few of the best have a record of more than 24,000 lb. of milk between calves and within a year. These cows can be kept with profit only upon high feeding and the best of pasture. For the butter-dairy the Jersey breed and its grades are the most profitable, and American pastures are now quite thickly sprinkled with the Jersey colours. Ayrshires come next, and the Devon follows in favour; but of necessity the common native and much cheaper cow forms the rank and file of the dairy herds.

In America the whole of the work of caring for the cows, feeding and milking them, is done by men. The feeding consists of pasturing wholly; pasturing with partial soiling, or full soiling in the summer; and feeding upon hay and meals of various kinds with pulped roots or silage in the winter. A large number of dairies are devoted to making butter in the winter, by which a higher price is obtained for the product, and leisure is secured in the summer for the growth of the feeding crops for use in the winter. With the rapid rise in the value of farms suited to the dairy, pasturing is found to be too costly for the largest profit, and partial soiling is almost universally resorted to. Complete soiling, by which one cow may be kept on the product of one acre of land all the year, is practised in some of the best of the fine-butter dairies, where land is worth $200 per acre or more, and where pure-bred Jersey, Guernsey, or Ayrshire cows of high value are kept, a yield of 12 to 14 lb. of butter per week being obtained by the high feeding of these cows. of these cows, a Jersey, recently produced 49 lb. of butter in a week, under a forced test, while from 14 lb. to 24 lb. of butter weekly has been given by more than 100 Jersey cows now living. This, however, is an example of what is known as fancy dairying, which is closely connected with breeding cows for sale at high prices. In a good working dairy a cow is required to yield 7 to 10 lb. of butter weekly in the height of the season, and at least 200 to 250 lb. in the season.

One

The average feeding of a dairy cow in the summer consists of the best pasture that can be afforded, with some fresh green fodder as soon as the great heat of the summer hardens the grass, and from 2 to 12 quarts of ground feed-ground corn and oats, bran, cotton-seed meal, or linseed meal. A very common method of feeding is to give 2 or 3 quarts of mixed corn meal and bran, with a quart of cotton-seed meal at each milking time, the cows generally being brought to the barn to be milked. In winter, hay of clover and timothy grass mixed, with the sar antity above menHoned of meal and a pe ewers' grains, is