CEPHALODISCUS

stne in Britain, part i. Cephalaspida' (Lond. 1868-70); R. H. Traquair, The Ganoids of the British Carboniferous System (Palæont. Society, i Lond. 1877).

Cephalodiscus, one of the most curious and interesting organisms dredged by the Challenger expedition. It was found in the Strait of Magellan, was first supposed to be a compound Ascidian, was monographed (1887) by Professor M'Intosh as one of the Polyzoa (section Aspidophora), but is regarded by Mr Harmer as closely allied to that marvellous vertebrate-like worm, Balanoglossus (q.v.). The organisms form a spreading seaweed-like brownish colony, measuring in some cases 9 inches by 6, and including a great number of little individuals, protected by a membranous, flexible investment or house. Each individual resembles Balanoglossus (and also in part backboned animals) in many important points, such as (a) the presence of glits; (b) the existence of a notochord as a dorsal outgrowth from the gut, growing forwards into the anterior region or proboscis; and (e) the possession of a dorsal central nervous system, most nchly developed in the middle region (or collar), bat extending on to the proboscis. As another apparent connecting link between invertebrates and vertebrates, Cephalodiscus is of the greatest zoological interest. See zoology of the voyage of

Cephalodiscus.

H.M.S. Challenger, Part Ixii.; Report on Cephalodurus, by Professor W. C. M'Intosh and Mr S. F. Harmer.

Cephalonia (Homeric, Same or Samos), the largest of the seven Ionian Islands (q.v.), lies opite the entrance of the Gulf of Lepanto or Corinth. It is irregular in shape, with a maximum leth of 30 miles, and an area of 302 sq. m. Pop. 79 80,543. The surface is mountainous, in one pant attaining 5310 feet; the soil for the most part ..n, and water scarce. The inhabitants, however, have planted vineyards wherever the grape will grow, and currants and olive-oil are also produced export. The capital is Argostoli (q.v.). Cephalo poda (Gr., 'head-footed'), the highest class of molluscs, and in some respects the highest vertebrates. They are usually large animals, exclusively marine, with well-developed headion, but (as the quaint name suggests) with the ft or ventral surface grown round the mouth, and split up into arms, which (with one exception bear suckers. Another part of the foot is

mantle-cavity. While the ancient forms lived in shells, the Pearly Nautilus alone remains in this state, the shell being in all other cases internal and degenerate. The eyes are peculiarly large, and their ferocious aspect has earned for many common forms the title of devil-fish.' The mouth in the midst of the arms' is equipped with parrot-like teeth, and with a rasping ribbon on the tongue. The central nervous system, with its closely associated ganglia, is surrounded by & protective cartilaginous sheath, analogous, though in no way homologous, with a vertebrate brain-box. The sexes are separate. The structure and life of these animals will be discussed under the more familiar title CUTTLEFISH; only the general characters, classification, and distribution are here noticed.

Classification.-The Cephalopoda include two distinct orders, one represented by the Pearly Nautilus, the other by all the other living forms, which are again divided into Octopoda and Decapoda, according to the number of the 'arms.'

AMMONITE; also CALAMARY, OCTOPUS, SEPIA, SQUID; See especially CUTTLEFISH, NAUTILUS, BELEMNITE, Owen, Memoir of the Pearly Nautilus (1832); Férussac and D'Orbigny, Histoire naturelle des Céphalopodes (2 vols. Paris, 1835-48); Hoyle, Challenger Report on Cephalopoda.

Cephaloptera, a name formerly used for a genus of rays. See RAY.

Cephissus, one of the two rivers which water the Athenian plain. It rises on the western slope of Mount Pentelicus and the southern side of Mount Parnes, and flows past Athens on the west into the Saronic Gulf near Phalerum.

Cepola. See BANDFISH.

Ceram' (SERANG), the largest island of the southern Moluccas, lies NE. of Amboyna, to which Dutch residency it belongs, and is divided into Great and Little Ceram by the Isthmus of Taruno. Area, 6605 sq. m.; pop. 195,000. The island is one of the least explored in the archipelago, and comparatively little is known of the interior, which is, moreover, but scantily populated, the great mass of the people, mostly native Alfuros and immigrant Malays, inhabiting the coast villages. Much of the island is very fertile. A mountain-chain runs through the country, reaching in Nusa Keli some 11,000 feet. The chief exports are sago, iron, timber, earthenware, birds of Paradise, dried fish, edible nests, &c.

Ceramics (Gr. keramos, 'potter's clay'), a term used to designate the department of plastic art which comprises all objects made of clay, such as vases, cups, bassi-rilievi, cornices, and the like. See POTTERY.

Cerastes, or HORNED VIPER, a genus of serpents of the family Viperidae, distinguished by a broad depressed heart-shaped head, the scales of which are similar to those of the back, and particularly remarkable for the development of one of the scales of each eyelid into a spine or horn, often of considerable length. The tail is very distinct

Horned Viper (Cerastes vulgaris).

from the body. This genus is exclusively African, and very venomous. There is probably only one species, Cerastes ægyptiacus or cornutus, the Horned Viper of the north of Africa, called Cerastes by the ancients, the name being derived from the Greek keras, a horn.' It was correctly described by the traveller Bruce, but his description was for some time regarded with incredulity.

Cerate (Lat. cera, wax'), a compound of wax with other oily and medicinal substances in such proportions as to have the consistence of an Ointment (q.v.). Simple cerate is made by melting together 6 parts of olive-oil, 3 of white wax, and 1 of spermaceti.

Ceratites, a genus of Ammonites (q.v.) peculiar to, and characteristic of, the Trias.

Cerat'odus, the Queensland mud-fish, one of the remarkable sub-class of double breathers or Dipnoi. The name was originally used for the fossil possessors of certain tooth-plates found in the

Ceratodus.

Triassic and Jurassic strata, and to this genus the Queensland survivor, which has similar dental arrangements, was referred when discovered in 1870. Barra munda is the local name. The fish may occasionally attain a length of six feet, has a later

CEREALIA

ally compressed body with large scales, and possesses very unfish-like limbs with a central jointed axis and lateral pieces. It lives in muddy water often containing much decaying vegetable matter. In this medium it does not find the gill-respiration sufficient, and comes to the surface to take gulps of air into the swimming-bladder, which functions as a lung. It eats leaves and other parts of plants. At nights Ceratodus sometimes leaves the water, and moves along the river-bank. The expulsion of air from its air-bladder or lung is supposed to account for a grunting noise then often heard. In the dry season it buries itself in the mud.

Limb of Ceratodus.

The flesh is much esteemed, and compared with salmon. This interesting animal will be discussed, in its more technical relations, along with its neighbour genera-Lepidosiren and Protopterusunder the title MUD-FISHES.

Ceratonia. See CAROB.

Cerberus, in Greek Mythology, the manyheaded dog-according to Hesiod, the offspring of Typhaon and Echidna-who guarded the portal of the infernal regions. Later writers describe him as only three-headed, with the tail and mane composed of serpents, though the poets sometimes encumber him with a hundred heads. Orpheus charmed him by the magic of his lyre, and Hercules overcame him by strength and dragged him to the upper world.

Cerca'ria, the technical name applied to an embryonic form of many flukes. In all the twosuckered flat parasitic worms (the Distomeæ division of Trematodes) the development is indirect or circuitous.

which, instead of growing into adults, produce The eggs develop into embryos, asexually one or more sets of intermediate forms. The final form, produced more or less directly from the embryo, is called a cercaria, and grows up into the adult fluke. It differs from the adult in having only rudiments of reproductive organs, in possessing eye-spots, and in being (except in one genus) equipped with a very movable tail. It is (1) born within some host, such as a water-snail; (2) leaves this and swims freely in the water; (3) becomes sluggish, and enters a second host, or fixes itself on some foreign body. In this state it loses its tail and encapsules itself, and does not experience any further change till (4) it or its host is eaten by a vertebrate, within which the cercaria becomes an adult and sexual fluke. From the latter the embryos which eventually enter the first-mentioned host arise. Sometimes the life-history is simpler, but in all cases the cercaria is the form produced (generally indirectly) by the original embryo, and developing into the adult. See FLUKE.

Cercis. See JUDAS' TREE.

Cercopithe'cus (Gr., tail-ape '), a genus of Monkeys (q.v.).

Cere. See BILL.

Cerea'lia, or CEREAL GRASSES, so named from Ceres (q.v.), are the plants which produce grain or corn; in strictness, all the species of grasses (Graminea) cultivated for the sake of their seed as an article of food. They are also called Corn-plants or Bread-plants; but in this wide

CEREBRATION

popular sense the term cereal ceases to have any banical limits, and includes plants of wholly distinct orders, notably Buckwheat (natural order. Polygonacea), and Quinoa (Chenopodi aces, &c.; even the Lotus of the Nile, the Vic turia reqia, and other species of water-lilies might thus be added to the list.

The cereals proper do not belong to any particular tribe of the great order of grasses, but the employment of particular species as bread-plants seems to have been determined chiefly by the superior size of the seed, or by the facility of procuring it in suflicient quantity, and of freeing it from its unedible envelopes. The most extensively cultivated grains are Wheat (Triticum), Barley (Hordeum), Rye Secale), Oats (Avena), Rice (Oryza), Maize or Indian Corn (Zea), different kinds of Millet

Setaria, Panicum, Paspalum, Pennisetum, and

Penicillaria), and Durra or Guinea Corn (Sorghum or Andropogon). These have all been cultivated from time immemorial, and there is great uncertainty as to the number of species to which the many existing varieties belong; their original forms and native countries often cannot confidently be determ.ned. Barley, oats, and rye are the grains of the ellest regions, the cultivation of the former two extending even within the arctic circle. Wheat is bext to these, and in the warmer regions of the temperate zone its cultivation is associated with that of maize and rice, which are extensively culti vated within the tropics. The millets belong to warm climates, and durra is tropical or sub-tropical. Rice is the food of a greater number of the human race than any other kind of grain. See CORN, BARLEY, MAIZE, MILLET, RICE, WHEAT, and other separate articles.

Cerebration, UNCONSCIOUS. There can be no doubt that molecular changes in the cerebrum accompany all our conscious mental processes. The doctrine of unconscious cerebration as stated by Carpenter, Laycock, and others, holds that similar changes may go on in the cerebrum without any consciousness on our part, until the fully elaborated mental result is presented. It is an every-day experience that after one has been in vain trying to recall some name or incident, it will suddenly flash into the mind when one is thinking of some entirely different subject. According to Carpenter the cere brum put in action by our consciousness has gone on working automatically but unconsciously, until the processes accompanying the mental operation of remembering the name or incident have been completed. This is the physiological statement corresponding to the psychological doctrine that the mind may undergo modifications without being ensions of the process until the new combination as presented to consciousness. See CONSCIOUSNESS, MIND.

|

Cerebro-spinal Fluid is a clear, almost elourless, slightly alkaline fluid, closely resem hing iv mph in its composition, but containing less men It is contained partly within the ventric. ar system of the brain, and in part in the loose roner tive tissue (subarachnoid meshwork), which ise between the Arachnoid and Pia Mater (q.v.), ling continued from this latter situation along the lymphatic sheaths, which closely invest all the blood-vessels in the substance of the brain and spinal cord. The spaces which contain it communicate with the lymphatics of the head and of the nerves, and with the venous sinuses in the dura mater. Its main function, besides that of moving waste products, is to equalise the pressure within the skull. As the blood pressure increases 1st of the cerebro-spinal fluid diminishes, and rice rerai. As the brain atrophies it is replaced by a ¦ proportionate increase in the fluid. In some dis

eases, such as acute and chronic Hydrocephalus (q.v.), it is greatly increased, and then it becomes a cause of atrophy of the brain. Its value as a water-cushion in diminishing the violence of shock from external injury has been already referred to at BRAIN, Cerebro-spinal means pertaining to the brain and spinal cord together, to the cerebrospinal system. For Cerebro-spinal Meningitis, see MENINGITIS.

Cerebrum. See BRAIN.

Ceremonies, MASTER OF THE, an officer at court, instituted by James I. for the reception of ambassadors and dignitaries. The same name came to be used for the supreme authority on etiquette at public assemblies at Bath and elsewhere; Beau Nash (q.v.) being the most memorable.

of the family Anatidae, to which the New Holland Cereopsis (Gr., wax-face'), a genus of birds goose (C. nova hollandia) belongs. This bird has been known since the southern shores of Australia were first visited by navigators. There, and on the adjacent islands, they were found in great abundance; and so little were they acquainted with the danger to be apprehended from man, that the earlier navigators easily supplied themselves with fresh provisions by knocking them down with

sticks.

The flight is slow and heavy, and the bird is naturally becoming less abundant. The cere (see BILL) is remarkably large, whence the name.

Ceres, the Roman name of the great Greek goddess Demeter, the protectress of agriculture and the fruits of the earth. Her worship was borrowed by the Romans from Sicily. Her first temple in Rome was vowed by the dictator A. Postumius Albinus (496 B.C.), to avert a famine with which the city was threatened. games, the Cerealia, was instituted in her honour, A great festival, with and her worship acquired great importance in the city. The decrees of the senate were deposited in her temple for the inspection of the tribunes of the people. See DEMETER.

Ceres, one of the Planetoids (q.v.), and the first of them that was discovered. It was first seen by Piazzi at Palermo, January 1, 1801, and is sometimes visible to the naked eye, looking like a star between the seventh and eighth magnitudes,

Cereus, a large genus of Cactaceæ (q.v.), containing many of the most imposing forms of the order, both as respects vegetation and flowering. C. giganteus reaches a height of 60 feet, often unbranched, its tall pillars giving an extraordinary character to the landscape of New Mexico, while the allied C. peruvianus (36 feet) takes its place in Peru. Others have thin snake-like branches (C. flagelliformis), while the short obconical C. senilis is covered with long silky hairs. Many have splendid flowers, and of these C. speciosissimus with scarlet or purplish flowers is often cultivated, while C. grandiflorus is the well-known night flowering cactus. The fruits are often much esteemed. For illustration, see CACTUS.

Cerignola, a town of Italy, 22 miles SE. of Foggia by rail, with manufactures of linen, and a trade in almonds and cotton. The Spaniards' deci sive victory over the French here in 1303 established Spain's supremacy in Naples, Pop. 22,659.

Ceri'go, the southernmost of the seven Ionian Islands (q.v.), now officially known again by its old Greek name of Cythera, is separated from the coast of Morea by a narrow strait. Area, 107 sq. m.; pop. (1879) 13,259. It is mostly barren and mountainous in some parts; but corn, wine, and olives and fruits are raised. Capsali is the capital. In ancient times the island was sacred to Venus, as the land that received the goddess when she arose from the sea.

He

Cerinthus, a heretic who lived at the close of the apostolic age, but of whom we have nothing better than uncertain and confused accounts. He is said to have been a native of Alexandria. passed from Egypt into Asia Minor, and lived in Ephesus contemporaneously (according to the belief of the church) with the aged apostle John. It is related by Irenæus, on the authority of Polycarp, that John held the heretic in such detestation that, on a certain occasion, when he encountered Cerinthus in the baths of Ephesus, he immediately left the baths, saying to those about him: Let us fly, lest the bath fall on us, since Cerinthus is within, the enemy of the truth.' It is also said by Irenæus that the Gospel by St John was written in direct opposition to the tenets of Cerinthus. He held that the world was not made by the highest God, but by some angel or power far removed from and ignorant of the Supreme Being. He is also said to have held coarse and sensual millenarian views, to have believed the Jewish ceremonial law to be in part binding upon Christians, and to have taught that the Divine Spirit was first united with the man Jesus in his baptism by John. Cerinthus being, so far as is known, the oldest teacher of Judaico-Gnostic prin

ciples, and, according to Neander, 'the intermediate link between the Judaising and Gnostic sects, there would naturally be a greater incongruity and want of harmony in his system than in the later developments of Gnosticism (q.v.).

Cerithium, a genus of Prosobranchiate Gasteropods, and type of a large family, Cerithiadæ. The shell is rough, naked, spiral, elongated, with many coils, and with an oval oblique aperture which has a short canal in front. The species of this family are numerous (140), most of them marine, but many inhabiting estuaries and brackish rather than salt water; some are found in lakes and rivers. A few belong to temperate climates, but most of them are tropical, and in mangrove swamps they particularly abound. The fossil species are very numerous, and almost all limited to the Tertiary formations. C. vulgatum, over six inches in height, is often seen in Italian markets. Cerium (sym. Ce, eq. 92) is a rare metal found in cerite and a few other minerals. It is a white metal, has not been obtained in any quantity, is not therefore employed in any manufacture, and forms two basic oxides and a numerous class of salts. The nitrate and oxalate of cerium have been employed in the vomiting of pregnancy, their action being somewhat similar to that of the subnitrate of bismuth. Cerium biscuits are biscuits containing a small proportion of the oxalate, and they form a very convenient medium for the administration of the salt. Cerite or Ochröite is the silicate of cerium, and is found as a mineral in gneiss, near Riddarhytta, in Westmanland in Sweden.

Cerox'ylon. See WAX PALM.

Cerre'to, a cathedral city of South Italy, on a slope of the Apennines, 14 miles NNW. of Benevento. Pop. 5129.

Cerro de Pasco, the capital of the Peruvian department of Junin, stands at an elevation of 14,276 feet, 138 miles NE. of Lima. Near it are some of the richest silver-mines on the continent.

The climate is cheerless and inclement. Pop. 7000, mostly Indians and half-breeds.

Cerro Gordo, a plateau in Mexico, the most easterly on the route from Vera Cruz to the capital. Here, on 18th April 1847, the Americans totally defeated the Mexicans.

Cerro Largo, a department in the NE. of Uruguay, well watered, with large savannahs and

CERTIORARI

forests. Area, 5735 sq. m.; pop. (1884) 36,000, chiefly engaged in cattle-raising. Capital, Cerro Largo or Melo; pop. 5000.

Certaldo, a town of Central Italy, 19 miles SW. of Florence (37 by rail). It is noteworthy as the residence of Boccaccio, who was born and died here. His house is still standing, much as it was in the poet's time. Pop. 2500.

in the great order Insessores or Passeres. They are Certhiidæ, a family of birds, generally placed best known by their most typical representatives the Creepers (q.v.). They are widely distributed birds, absent however from the Ethiopian and neo-tropical regions, and the family includes twelve climbers, and feed on insects. genera and about fifty species. They are expert

Certificate, in the law of England and of the United States, is a written statement by a person having a public or official status concerning some matter within his knowledge and authority. There are a great many classes of such certificates-e.g. certificate of charge upon land; certificate of the cally a report of what the clerk has done; certificate chief-clerk in Chancery proceedings, which is practiof incorporation under the Companies Acts; certifi of discharge of a debtor in liquidation; certificate Shipping Acts; certificate of naturalisation. cate of mortgage on ships under the Merchant the United States, the word is commonly applied to any formal statement made by a public servant in the execution of his duty, as by a collector of taxes, a postmaster, &c. See CHARACTER.

In

Certification, in the law of Scotland, signifies the judicial assurance given to a party of the course to be followed by the judge in case he disobeys the will of a summons, or other writ or order of the court. Reiterated contumacy on the part of the defender was at one time punished with confiscation of his property (1449, chap. 29), but now certification merely means that if he fails to appear in the usual manner, the judge will decern, or pronounce judgment against him.

cases

Certiora'ri is the writ by which, since the abolition of imprisonment for debt and the consequent disuse of the better known writ habeas corpus, causes are removed from inferior courts of record into the High Court of Justice. This is a matter of considerable importance to the commercial public. Such removal is either before or after certiorari is competent as tort, in all judgment in the inferior court. Before judgment except where the sum sued for is less than £5. Either party can remove the cause, but, where the sum is less than £20, the defendant must give his sureties for the debt and costs. The removal must be within six weeks after appearance of defendant. In the superior court the plaintiff must make a fresh statement of claim. The certiorari is obeyed by sending up the original record. Under the Judicature Acts there is a further power of removal when any defence or counter-claim is set up which is beyond the jurisdiction of the inferior court. In the county courts, where the action on contract is above £20, or on tort above £5, the defendant has a general right to certiorari on security for costs. Where the discretion of the superior court is appealed to, such considerations as the difficulty of legal points, the improbability of obtaining an impartial jury, are important. After judgment, certiorari is often applied for by the successful plaintiff for purposes of execution, where the person or effects of the defendant cannot be found in the jurisdiction of the inferior court. Certiorari may also be obtained as of right by the crown to remove an indictment in a criminal cause to the Queen's Bench Division or the Centre * Court. This writ used also to be of ri

iminal rivate

CERTOSA DI PAVIA

prosecutors, but since the institution of the Court of Criminal Appeal it is necessary to show cause, as in a civil case from the county courts, and to give security.

In the United States, certiorari is generally provided for by statute, but where no such provision is made, or no other mode of review of the proceedings of an inferior court has been provided by statute, any superior court exercising common law jurisdic. tion has an inherent right to issue this writ. It is used in both civil and criminal cases to bring the whote record of the inferior tribunal before a superior court, to determine whether the former has proceeded within its jurisdiction, and also to enable substantial justice to be done whenever an inferior tribunal has failed to proceed according to the requirements of the law. It is used as an orginal process to remove a cause, and change venue, only where the superior court is satisfied that an impartial trial will not otherwise be had.

Certo ́sa di Pavi'a, a celebrated Carthusian monastery, 5 miles N. of Pavia, was founded in 13 by Giovanni Galeazzo Visconti, first Duke of Man, in atonement for the murder of his uncle. The church is a splendid structure in the form of a Latin cross, the ground-plan being 252 feet long by 177 feet broad. The richly sculptured façade, designed by Borgognone, was commenced in 1473. The building is made up of various styles, but the Pointed prevails in the interior, which is decorated with frescoes, paintings, &c., and contains a gorgous high-altar, the mausoleum of the founder, as several monuments.

After the battle of Pavia

1925), Francis I. was for three days a prisoner at the Certosa, which, since the dissolution of the monasteries, has been constituted a national monument. The name certosa is a form of Carthasian (q.v.), and is used of other monasteries of the order, as that to the south of Florence.

Ceru men is ear wax, the yellow waxy matter which is secreted by certain glands lying in the passage that leads from the external opening of the ear to the membrane of the tympanum. It lubricates the passage and entangles particles of dust and small insects, preventing them from getting farther in. See EAR.

Cervantes Saavedra, MIGUEL DE, the anthor of Don Quixote, was born at Alcalá de Henares in 1547. His birthday is unknown, but be was baptised on the 9th of October. He was a descendant of a family that traced its origin back to the 10th century through a line of Castilian mbies, of whom one was the renowned warrior Niño Alfonso, whose grandson took the surname of Cervantes from the old castle of San Servando, Cervantes, near Toledo. It was borne with bour by many church dignitaries, soldiers, and mag-trates of the 14th and 15th centuries, but at the barth of the man who gave it immortality it had ceased to be one of the prominent names of a. The name of Saavedra came into the poet's rach of the family by marriage in the 15th century. Of Cervantes personally we know little or nothing beyond what he himself tells us, but of the events of his life there is a tolerably complete The story of his having studied at Salamasea is improbable; all we know of his eduat is that Juan Lopez de Hoyos, a professor of beiles lettres at Madrid, calls him his dearly beloved pupil. The first known productions of tas pen appeared in 1569 in a collection of pieces en the death of the queen, edited by the proEarly in the same year he passed over into, Itay in the serv» of Cardinal Giulio Acquaviva, but shortly af is enlisted as a soldier under ld appear, of Mare Antony Colouna tle of Lepanto he was in

1

the thick of the fight, and received three severe gunshot wounds, by one of which his left hand and arm were permanently disabled. After having seen some further service against the Turks in Tunis, he was returning to Spain in 1575 with letters of recommendation to the king from Don John of Austria and the Viceroy of Sicily, when the galley he sailed in was captured by Algerine corsairs, and with his brother Rodrigo and several others he was carried into Algiers. He remained in captivity five years, during which he made four daring attempts to escape, and lived in almost daily expectation of death or torture. It was not for himself alone that he sought freedom. No nobler story of unselfish heroism has ever been told than that in the depositions of his fellow captives at Algiers, where they testify to his selfdevotion, his dauntless spirit, and his generosity, and with touching earnestness strive to give expression to their own gratitude, love, and admira tion. In 1580 he was ransomed by the charity of the Redemptionist Fathers and by the devo tion of his family which reduced itself to poverty to provide the sum required; and rejoining his old regiment in Portugal, he served in the expedition to the Azores under the Marquis of Santa Cruz. The story of a liaison with a Portuguese lady is an invention of the biographers to account for a certain Isabel de Saavedra mentioned in an official document of 1605 as his natural daughter. There is no other evidence of her existence, and if this is to be relied upon she was born after his marriage, and nearly two years after his return from Portugal. At the close of the war he retired from military life and turned his attention to literature. His first work was the Galatea, a pastoral romance of the same class as the Diana of Montemayor and the Filida of his friend Montalvo. It was printed at Alcalá in 1585-not, as is commonly said, Madrid, 1584. While it was passing through the press he married, and for two or three years strove to gain a liveli hood by writing for the stage. He produced between twenty and thirty plays, of which two only, the Numancia and the Trato de Argel, have survived; but from his own account it is plain that, though not ill received, they failed to attract, and that he was driven to seek some other employment. In 1587 he migrated to Seville, where he obtained the post of deputy-purveyor to the fleet. In 1594 he was appointed a collector of revenues for the kingdom of Granada; but in 1597, failing to make up the sum due to the treasury, he was sent to prison at Seville. He was released, however, on giving security for the balance, but not reinstated; nor can the government be charged with undue harshness, for though no stain attaches to his integrity, it is clear that as a business-like official he was not faultless. He remained some time longer at Seville, but nothing is known of his movements from 1599 to 1603. Local tradition maintains that he wrote Don Quixote in prison at Argamasilla in La Mancha; but it has nothing to support it save the fact that Argamasilla is Don Quixote's village. In 1603 he was living at Valladolid; in September 1604 leave was granted to print the first part of Don Quixote, and early in January 1605 the book came out at Madrid. It is commonly asserted that its reception was cold; but the truth is that it leaped into popularity at once. Within a month two pirated editions were in the press at Lisbon; by the autumn five editions had been published; and Don Quixote and Sancho Panza paraded the streets as familiar characters in the pageants at Valladolid that spring. By a minority, however, it was not welcomed. Lope de Vega wrote sneeringly of it and its author months before it was printed-for it had a pre