CHALFONT ST GILES

Chalfont St Giles, a village of Buckinghamshire, 16 miles SE. of Aylesbury. Milton's cottage (1665) still stands here.

Chalgrove, a village 13 miles SE. of Oxford, the scene of a skirmish in the Civil War between Prince Rupert's cavalry and a parliamentary force under Hampden, in which that patriot received his death-wound, June 18, 1643.

Chalice (Lat. calix, 'a cup'). The name has long been applied only to the cups used for the administration of the wine in the holy communion. Anciently made of glass, precious stone, horn, and other substances, chalices have for many centuries

Chalice (1459) at Nettlecombe, County Somerset.

(From Cripps's Old English Plate.)

been formed of

silver, or sometimes gold, occasionally enriched with jewels. Their fashion has followed the art of the times, the hemispherical bowl and plain circular foot of Romanesque or Norman days giving way to a conical bowl and hexagonal foot in the Perpendicu lar period, and these in turn to more modern shapes, seldom of ch beauty and excellence as those of Gothic design Before the Reformation a crucifix or other sacred device always occupied one side of The chalice was usually accompanied by a paten, which might serve as a cover to the bowl, as well as for carrying the wafer or bread. In medieval times a chalice of tin or pewter, if not of silver, was placed in the coffin of ecclesiastics at trial. The chalice is the emblem of St John the Evangelist. Old chalices are much sought after by electors. The glass Luck of Edenhall, preserved in the family of Musgrave, near Penrith, is apparently an old chalice. The use of the mixed chalice, the mingling of water with the wine used in the Lord's Supper, and in the Roman rite, has been matter of controversy in the Church of Eng. land. The chalice veil or corporale was a covering for the chalice.

the foot.

Chalk, a soft earthy variety of limestone or carbonate of lime, forming great strata, and claim ing the attention of the geologist even more than of the mineralogist (see CRETACEOUS SYSTEM). It is generally of a yellowish-white colour, but some tas snow-white. It is easily broken, and has an earthy fracture, is rough and very meagre to the touch, and adheres slightly to the tongue. It generally contains a little silica, alumina, or mag Deia, sometimes all of these. Although often very wat and earthy, it is sometimes so compact that it can be used as a building-stone; and it is used for thas purpose either in a rough state, or sawn into locks of proper shape and size. It is burned into quicklime, and nearly all the houses in London are cemented with mortar so procured. The siliceous parties being separated by pounding and diffusing in water, it becomes whiting, of which the domestic t are familiar to every one. Carpenters and others use it for making marks, which are easily effaced: the blackboard and piece of chalk are now emon equally in the lecture-rooms of universities and in the humblest village-schools. Chalk, per

fectly purified, is mixed with vegetable colouring matters, such as turmeric, litmus, saffron, and sapgreen, to form pastel colours or coloured chalks; but vegetable colours which contain an acid are changed by it (see CRAYON). The Vienna white of artists is simply purified chalk. In a perfectly purified state it is administered as a medicine to correct acidity in the stomach. Chalk is also extensively used as a manure. See LIME, MANURE. BLACK CHALK is a mineral quite different from common chalk, and apparently receives its name from resembling it in meagreness to the touch, in soiling the fingers, and in being used for drawing, writing, &c. It is also called Drawing-slate. It is of a slaty structure, of a bluish or grayish-black colour, easily cut and broken, and makes a perfectly black mark on paper. It is used for drawing and as a black colour in painting. It becomes red by exposure to heat. It is essentially a kind of Clay (q.v.), and derives its colour from carbon, which it contains. It is found associated with schists, &c. in Spain, France, Italy, &c., also in the coal formation in Scotland.-BRIANÇON CHALK and FRENCH CHALK are popular names for Soapstone (q.v.).-RED CHALK is ochry red clay-iron ore, consisting of clay and much peroxide of iron. It is of a brownish-red colour, and a somewhat slaty structure, the cross fracture earthy. The coarser varieties are used chiefly by carpenters for making marks on wood; the finer, by painters. It occurs in thin beds in clay-slate and graywacke-slate in some parts of Germany.

Chalking the Door, a mode of warning tenants to remove from burghal tenements, long known and still in use in Scotland. It is thus described by Hunter in his work on Landlord and Tenant: A burgh-officer, in presence of witnesses, chalks the most patent door forty days before Whitsunday, having made out an execution of chalking, in which his name must be inserted, and which must be subscribed by himself and two witnesses. This ceremony now proceeds simply on the verbal order of the proprietor. The execution of chalking is a warrant under which decree of removal will be pronounced by the burgh court, in virtue of which the tenant may be ejected on the expiration of a charge of six days. See EJECTMENT.

Challenger Expedition, a circumnavigating scientific exploration of the open sea sent out by the British government in 1872-76-earlier expeditions being those of the Lightning (1868) and Porcupine (1870). In 1872 the Challenger, a corvette of 2306 tons, was completely fitted out and furnished with every scientific appliance for examining the sea from surface to bottom-natural history work-room, chemical laboratory, aquarium, &c. The ship was given in charge to a naval surveying staff under Captain Nares; and to a scientific staff, with Professor (afterwards Sir) Wyville Thomson at their head, for the purpose of sounding the depths, mapping the basins, and determining the physical and biological conditions of the Atlantic, the Southern and the Pacific Oceans. With this new commission, the Challenger weighed anchor at Sheerness on the 7th December 1872, and on the evening of the 24th May 1876 she dropped anchor at Spithead, having in these three and a half years cruised over 68,900 nautical miles, and made investigations at 362 stations, at each of which were determined the depth of channel; the bottom, surface, and intermediate temperatures, currents, and fauna: and the atmospheric and meteorological conditions. The route was by Madeira, the Canaries, the West Indies, Nova Scotia, Bermudas, Azores, Cape Verd, Fernando Noronha, Bahia, Tristan d'Acunha, Cape of

Good Hope, Kerguelen, Melbourne, the Chinese Sea, Hong Kong, Japan, Valparaiso, Magellan's Strait, Monte Video, Vigo, and Portsmouth. Between the Admiralty Isles and Japan the Challenger made her deepest sounding, on the 23d March 1875, 4575 fathoms (equal to a reversed Himalaya), the deepest sounding on record except two. See the copious Reports on the Scientific Results of the Voyage of H.M.S. Challenger, edited by Sir Wyville Thomson and Dr John Murray, which mark an era in deep-sea exploration. They fall into a Narrative (2 vols. 1882–85), Zoology (30 vols. 1880-89), Physics and Chemistry (3 vols. 1884-89), Botany (2 vols. 1885-86). To these invaluable reports many articles in the present work are indebted for materials and illustrations. See also the works of Sir C. Wyville Thomson, H. M. Moseley, Spry, Lord George Campbell, Wild; and the articles in this work on ATLANTIC OCEAN, PACIFIC OCEAN, SOUNDING, and especially SEA. Challis, JAMES, astronomer, born at Braintree in Essex, 12th December 1803, graduated senior wrangler and first Smith's prizeman at Cambridge in 1825, was ordained in 1830, and in 1836 became professor of Astronomy at Cambridge, where he died 3d December 1882. He was also till 1861 director of the Cambridge Observatory, and published a number of works, including 12 vols. of astronomical observations (1832-64). In August 1846, whilst carefully preparing to test Adams' results, he twice unconsciously noted the position of the planet Neptune before its discovery at Berlin on 23d September. See ADAMS (J. Č.).

Challoner, RICHARD, a learned Roman Catholic prelate, born at Lewes in Sussex, September 29, 1691. Becoming a Roman Catholic, he was sent in 1704 to the English College at Douay, where he became a professor, and remained until 1730. In that year he was sent to labour in London, and here he served as a missionary priest until 1741, when he was raised to the episcopal dignity as Bishop of Debra and coadjutor of Bishop Petre, whom he succeeded as Vicar Apostolic of the London district in 1758. During the No Popery riots of 1780 he was secreted near Highgate, and he died in London, January 12, 1781. Of Challoner's numerous controversial treatises, the best known is his Catholic Christian Instructed, an answer to Conyers Middleton's Letters from Rome. His Garden of the Soul is still the most popular prayerbook with English Catholics, and his revision of the Douay version of the Bible (5 vols. 1750) is substantially the Bible used by them. Of his historical works the most valuable are his memoirs of missionary priests and other Catholics of both sexes who suffered death or imprisonment in Eng land on account of their religion, from the year 1577 till the end of the reign of Charles II. (2 vols. 1741), and his Britannia Sancta (2 vols. 1745), a collection of the lives of British and Irish saints.

Chalmers, ALEXANDER, an industrious biographer and miscellanous writer, was born at Aberdeen in 1759. After a course of study at his native university, he abandoned a projected medical career, and repaired to London, where he soon became an active writer for the press and the busiest of booksellers' hacks. He died in London, 10th December 1834. His editions of Burns, Beattie, Fielding, Gibbon, Bolingbroke, Shakespeare, Johnson, and Boswell's Johnson are now of no importance; but that of The British Essayists, in 45 vols., is still esteemed as accurate and handy. His prefaces to Walker's Classics (45 vols.), and his enlarged edition of Johnson's Collection of the Poets (21 vols.), contain much honest work. But his reputation depends mainly on the General Biographical Dictionary (32 vols. 1812-14).

CHALMERS

Chalmers, GEORGE, Scottish antiquary, was born in 1742 at Fochabers in Elginshire, and was educated there and at King's College, Aberdeen. Having afterwards studied law at Edinburgh, in 1763 he went to North America, where he practised as a lawyer at Baltimore till the breaking out of the war of independence. Then returning to Britain, he settled in London (1775), and was appointed clerk to the Board of Trade in 1786. The duties of this office he continued to discharge with diligence and ability till his death on 31st May 1825. Of his thirty-three works the chief is Caledonia; an Account, Historical and Typographical, of North Britain (vols. i.-iii. 1807–24). În 1888-89 it was reprinted at Paisley in 7 vols., comprising the matter prepared for the unpublished 4th vol., and furnished with a much-needed index. Among his other publications are A Collection of Treaties between Great Britain and other Powers (2 vols. 1790); Lives of Defoe, Paine, Ruddiman, and Mary, Queen of Scots; and editions of Allan Ramsay and Lyndsay.

Chalmers, GEORGE PAUL, R.S.A., was born at Montrose in 1833 (not 1836). He served as errandboy to a surgeon, and apprentice to a ship-chandler; but he was resolved to become an artist, and in 1853 he came to Edinburgh, and studied under Scott Lauder. His Favourite Air,' attracted attention in 1854, and in 1867 he was elected an A.R.S.A., in 1871 an R.S.A. His untimely death at Edinburgh (28th February 1878) was due to injuries received some days before either from violence or by misadventure. His works are distinguished by admirable breadth, effective concentration of lighting, freedom of handling, and rich and powerful colouring. He executed some important portraits. His landscapes, mainly of his later years, include End of the Harvest' (1873) and Running Water' (1875). He is represented in the National Gallery of Scotland by The Legend,' a large unfinished subject-picture, which, like Prayer (1871), has been etched by Rajon. See his Memoir (1879).

Chalmers, THOMAS, D.D., LL.D., was born at Anstruther, in Fife, 17th March 1780, educated at the university of St Andrews (from 1791), and at the age of nineteen licensed to preach the gospel. In 1803 he was ordained minister of the parish of Kilmany, in Fifeshire, about 9 miles from St Andrews. entirely absorbed by mathematics and natural At this period his attention was almost philosophy. He carried on mathematical and chemistry classes in St Andrews during the winter of 1803-1804, and by his enthusiasm and lucidity of exposition obtained for himself a high reputation as a teacher. In 1808 he published an Inquiry into the Extent and Stability of National Resources. Shortly after this, domestic calamities and severe illness rendered him keenly susceptible of religious impressions. Having to prepare an article on Christianity for Brewster's Edinburgh Encyclopædia, he commenced a thorough study of the evidences, and rose from his investigations convinced that Christianity was the truth, and the Bible the veritable word of God.' Then the great genius of the man broke forth like sunshine. He grew earnest, devout, and faithful to his pastoral duties. In July 1815 he was translated to the Tron Church and parish, Glasgow, where his magnificent oratory took the city by storm. His Astronomical Discourses (1817) and Commercial Discourses (1820) had a widely extended popularity. In 1817 he visited London, where his preaching excited as great a sensation as at home. But Chalmers' energies could not be exhausted by mere oratory. Discovering that his parish was in a state of great ignorance and immorality, he began to devise a scheme for overtaking and checking

CHALMERS

the alarming evil. It seemed to him that the oris means by which this could be accomplished was by revivifying, remodelling, and extending the old parochial economy of Scotland,' which had ¦ proved so fruitful of good in the rural parishes. In order to wrestle more closely with the ignorance and vice of Glasgow, Chalmers in 1819 became in mister of St John's parish, of whose 2000 families, mostly workpeople, more than 800 had no connection with any Christian church. Chalmers broke up his parish into 25 districts, each of which he placed under separate management, and established two day schools, and between 40 and 50 local Sabbath schools, for the instruction of the children of the poorer and neglected | classes," more than 1000 of whom attended. In many other ways he sought to elevate and purify the lives of his parishioners. While in Glasgow, Chalmers had matured his opinions relative to the best method of providing for the poor. He disliked the English system of a compulsory assessment,' and preferred the old Scotch method of voluntary contributions at the church-door, administered by elders. The management of the poor in the parish of St John's was intrusted to his care by the authorities as an experiment, and in four years he reduced the pauper expenditure from £1400 to £280 per annum. Edward Irving was for 1W0 years his assistant. But such herculean toils began to undermine his constitution, and in 123 be accepted the offer of the Moral Philosophy chair in St Andrews, where he wrote his treatise on the Use and Abuse of Literary and Ecclesiastical Endowments (1827). In the following year he was transferred to the chair of Theology in Edinburgh, and in 1832 he published a work on political economy. In 1833 appeared his Bridgewater treatise, On the Adaptation of External ! Nature to the Moral and Intellectual Constitution of Man. It was received with great favour, and obtained for the author many literary honours; In 1854 he was elected by the Royal Society of Edinburgh first a fellow and then a vice-president, and by the French Institute a corresponding member, while in 1835 the university of Oxford conferred on him the degree of D.C.L. In 1834 he was appointed convener of the Church-extension ComButte; and after seven years of enthusiastic labor, he announced that upwards of £300,000 Bad been collected from the nation, and 220 new ehurches built. Meanwhile, however, troubles i were springing up in the bosom of the church ■itme.Í. The Evangelical party had become predominant in the General Assembly; the struggles in regard to patronage between them and the Moderate or Erastian party became keener and more frequent, until the decision of the civil courts in the famous Auchterarder and Strathhone cases brought matters to a crisis; and on the 18th of May 1843 Chalmers, followed by 470 ergymen, left the church of his fathers, rather Pan sacrifice those principles which he believed ential to the purity, honour, and independence of the church (see FREE CHURCH). The rapid formation and organisation of the Free Church were greatly owing to his indefatigable exertions. Utituers was elected principal of the Free Church Colege, and spent the close of his life in the ass performance of his duties there, and in

peting his Institutes of Theology. He died enis at Morningside, Edinburgh, May 30, 1847. I he works of Chalmers extend to 34 vols. (9 of which include his posthumous works). They conta.", valuable and, in some cases, original contentions to the sciences of natural theology, Cristian apologetics, and social economy; while em minor topics, such as the church-establishment question, they exhibit both novelty and ingenuity

of argument. As a religious orator Chalmers was unique and unrivalled. There have been few men in whom such gifts of intellect, feeling, and imagination were so harmoniously combined with the shrewdest common-sense and the highest administrative ability. Never did Scotland produce a greater or more lovable soul, one more gentle, guileless, and genial-hearted, or yet more fervid from the strength of a resolute will, before whose impetus difficulties were dashed aside as by a torrent. There have been loftier and more purely original minds in Scotland than Chalmers's, but there has never been a truer one, nor a heart whose Christian faith and piety were more intense, sincere, and humane. See his Memoirs, by his sonin-law, Dr W. Hanna (4 vols. 1849-52), and a Selection from the Correspondence of the late Thomas Chalmers (1853); also A Biographical Notice by Dean Ramsay (1850), and an Essay by Dr John Brown in his Hora Subseciva.

Châlons-sur-Marne, the capital of the French department of Marne, on the right bank of the river Marne, 107 miles E. of Paris by rail. An old place, with timber houses and many spired churches, it has an interesting cathedral, dating chiefly from the 13th century, a handsome hotelde-ville (1772), and a fine public park, though the Germans cut down its immemorial elms for fuel. It still does a considerable trade in Champagne wine; but its manufacture of the worsted cloth known as 'shalloon (Chaucer's chalons) is a thing of the past, and the population has dwindled from 60,000 in the 13th century to 23,636 in 1886. Near Châlons, which takes its name from the Catalauni of Latin writers, the Romans and Goths in 451 A.D. defeated Attila (q.v.) and his host of Huns. In 1856 Napoleon III. formed the celebrated camp of Chalons, 164 miles to the north-east of the town. Hence, during the Franco-Prussian war, on the night of August 21, 1870, MacMahon withdrew his troops, and next day the town was occupied by the Germans,

Châlon-sur-Saône (ancient Cabillonum), a town in the French department of Saône-et-Loire, 84 miles by rail N. of Lyons. Lying on the right bank of the Saône, at the point where that river is joined by the Canal du Centre, uniting it with the Loire, Châlon has an extensive traffic with the central districts of France, as well as with the Mediterranean and Atlantic. Fine quays and houses line the river; and the chief building is the church of St Vincent, 14th to 15th century. The industries are copper and iron founding, machinery and shipbuilding, and the manufacture of glass, paper, and chemicals. Pop. (1872) 20,055; (1886) 22,208.

Chalybæus, HEINRICH MORITZ, philosopher, born at Pfaffroda in Saxony, 3d July 1796, spent some years in teaching, and was appointed in 1839 professor of Philosophy in the university of Kiel. He was dismissed, however, in 1852, owing to his Germanic sympathies, and died at Dresden, 22d September 1862. His chief work is his System der speculativen Ethik (1850); and his review of the historical development of speculative philosophy has been translated into English by Tulk (1854) and Edersheim (1860).

Chalybeate Waters are those which contain MINERAL WATERS. a considerable portion of iron in solution. See

Chalybite, an iron ore. See IRON.

Cham, the pseudonym assumed by the caricaturist, Amedee de Noë (Cham being the French for Ham, the son of Noah), son of the Comte de Noe by an English mother, and born at Paris in 1819. He studied art under Delaroche,

and soon acquired a great reputation as a skilful and witty delineator of the humorous side of Parisian life. In 1843 began his famous connection with the Charivari, in which paper and in the Journal des Pélerinages he continued to delight his fellow-citizens until close upon his death on 6th September 1879. He was profoundly sceptical, but not unkindly, and obtained, as Edmond About pointed out, the success of an homme d'esprit. His masterpieces were chiefly social rather than political, and among his skits may be mentioned Proudhomana, Bagneurs et Buveurs d'Eau, Souvenirs de Garrison, and L'Exposition de Londres. Several good collections of his comic illustrations have been made-for instance, Douze Années Comiques (1880), with an introduction by L. Halévy, and Les Folies Parisiennes (1883), with an introduction by Gérôme. In Sala's Paris herself again (1882) are a good many specimens of Cham's art.

Chama, a genus of bivalve molluscs, the only surviving type of a family which was once extremely numerous and abundant, especially in the Jurassic and Chalk times. The genus is represented by about half a hundred living forms, restricted to warmer waters, and especially common about coral reefs. The general appearance is somewhat clamlike, the valves are unequal, of considerable thickness, and covered with leaf or scale-like outgrowths. They are very passive animals, usually fixed, with the mantle margins fused together, with very small foot and respiratory apertures, with well-developed hinge and an external ligament, and often of a bright colour. Some forty fossil species are known from Cretaceous and Tertiary strata, and the genus is of interest as the sole survivor of a once much larger family.

Chamade. See PARSLEY.

Chamæleon (Gr. chamaileon, ground lion'), a large genus of lizards, forming a very distinct family. Among the most distinctive features may be noted the soft tuberculated skin, with its power of changing colour; the coiled tail, adapted for curling round the branches of trees; the division of the toes of fore and hind feet into two bundles; the absence of an external ear-drum or tympanic membrane; the long worm-like insect-catching tongue, capable of extremely rapid protrusion. Even more remarkably distinctive, however, are certain peculiarities in the skeleton, and especially in the skull, which separate the chamæleons from

all other lizards.

Description.-The body is flattened, and bears a toothed crest of skin along the back. The head is

Chamæleon.

triangular, surmounted by a ridge. The animal stands unusually high upon its legs. The fore-feet are divided into three united internal digits and two external; the reverse (and the digits, corresponding to our great and second toes, form one bundle, and the other three-external-another

CHAMELEON

The

united group) occurs in the hind-feet. The digits are tipped by long sharp claws. The long compressed tail is curled ventralwards. The mouthaperture is small, but the tongue extremely long. It is the most active part of the animal, is cupshaped at the end, covered with a viscid secre tion, and very efficient in insect-catching. large lateral eyes, with circular lids leaving only a small aperture, are very active, and can be rapidly turned in all directions, a possibility which to some extent compensates for the stiffness of the head. The skin is soft, loose, and shagreen-like, the scales being very small. The glandular pores common on the thighs and near the anus of lizards are absent.

Among the internal peculiarities may be noted the largeness of the lungs, which admit of being greatly distended, so as to puff out the body into marked plumpness. They appear to be connected with surrounding air-spaces. The habit the chamæleon has of thus blowing itself out, taken along with its power of fasting, gave origin to the ancient supposition that it fed on air. The skeletal peculiarities are numerous. The chamaleons differ from all lizards except the Amphisboenas (q.v.), in having no 'columella' or epipterygoid skull-bone, and no interorbital septum, and from all other forms in the fact that the pterygoid and quadrate bones are not united. The latter is firmly fused to the skull, and the parietals are also peculiar in their firm attachments. The teeth are confined to a ridge along the summit of the jaws. The vertebræ are hollow in front; the breastbone is small, and only a few anterior ribs reach it; as in the geckos, many of the posterior ribs are united ventrally by hoops across the abdomen; there are no clavicles; the scapula and coracoid of the peculiarly long and narrow. shoulder-girdle and the ilia of the hip-girdle are

Life and Habit.-Except as regards tongue and eyes, the chamæleons are very sluggish. They are strictly arboreal lizards, moving very slowly, in perfect silence, and waiting rather than hunting for their insect prey. At a distance of several inches, about half as long as the body in some cases, they can most unerringly catch the unconscious insect.

about chameleons is their power of changing Probably the most familiar fact colour. Under the thin outer skin there are two layers of pigment-containing cells, the outer bright yellow, the inner brown to black. Under nerve ment-containing cells vary, and this produces control the disposition and expansion of the pigchange of colour. The change depends much more on internal emotions, expressing themselves in nervous stimulus and inhibition, than on external physical influences. The change appears to be rather emotional than protective. Most chama. leons are oviparous, and lay 30 to 40 thin-shelled eggs, which are deposited in an excavated hollow and covered over with earth and leaves. Moseley has described a South African species which brings forth its young alive.

Species and Distribution.-The genus Chamæleo is a large one, and some naturalists split it up. Chamæleons are especially at home in the Ethiopian region, but may occur beyond its limits. The commonest of the numerous species is C. vulgaris, which is abundant in Africa, and is also found in South Europe (Andalusia). The predominant colour varies in different species. Many males are adorned with horns on the head. One form, distinguished as a distinct genus (Rhampholeon), has a tail too short for clasping purposes, but this loss is made up for by accessory structures on the feet. The chamæleon was well described by Aristotle, but in later days became the subject of numerous ridiculous fables. It was also in repute