up or down precipices which almost no other quadruped could attempt. The hunting of the chamois is attended with great hardship and much danger. The hunter sometimes goes out on the adventurous chase alone; but more frequently several go out together, dividing into parties, of which one drives and the other shoots. The scent, sight, and hearing of the chamois are extremely keen. When a flock is feeding, one is always on the watch, and by a sort of whistle, announces apprehended danger. The flesh is highly esteemed. The skin is made into leather, and from it the original shammoy or shammy leather (wash-leather), so much prized for softness and warmth, was obtained, although the name has now become common also to leather prepared from the skins of other animals (see LEATHER and BUFF LEATHER). The horns are often used to adorn alpenstocks. Hairy balls or Concretions (q.v.) found in the stomach used to have a medicinal reputation. When taken young the chamois is easily tamed, and its general disposition is gentle and peaceable. See Keller, Die Gemse (Klagenfurt, 1885).

Chamomile. See CAMOMILE.

Chamouni, or CHAMONIX (Lat. Campus munitus, from the shelter of the mountains), a celebrated valley and village among the French Alps, in the department of Upper Savoy, lying 53 miles ESE. of Geneva, at an elevation of about 3400 feet above the level of the sea. The valley, bounded on the E. by the Col de Balme, is about 13 miles long and 2 broad, and is traversed by the Arve. On the north side lies Mont Brévent and the chain of the Aiguilles Rouges, and on the south, the giant group of Mont Blanc, from which enormous glaciers glide down, even in summer, almost to the bottom of the valley. The chief of these are the Glacier des Bossons, des Bois, de l'Argentière, and du Tour; the Glacier des Bois expands in its upper course into a great mountain lake of ice called the Mer de Glace. The village of Chamouni owes its origin and its alternative name, Le Prieuré, to the Benedictine convent founded here before 1099. Until 1741, however, the valley was little sought; the region was known, from the savageness of its inhabitants, by the name of Les Montagnes Maudites, or accursed mountains.' In that year it was visited by two Englishmen, Pococke and Wyndham, who described it in the Transactions of the Royal Society, but it was only in 1787 that the attention of travellers was effectually called to it by the Genevese naturalist, De Saussure, and others. Since then the number of visitors has gradually increased; now over 15,000 tourists are accommodated annually in the large hotels that have sprung up in the village, where an English chapel was opened in 1860. Grazing and such farming as the elevation allows are carried on, but most of the people are in some fashion dependent on the strangers for their income. Here the best guides are to be found for the neighbouring Alps, and from this point Mont Blanc is usually ascended.

At

the article ALPS there is a view of Chamouni,

whose beauties have been celebrated by Byron, Coleridge, Shelley, Wordsworth, Lamartine, and Ruskin (Notes and Queries, July 23, 1887, p. 67). Pop. of village (1886) 576; of commune, 2450.

Champac, or CHUMPAKA ( Michelia Champaca), an Indian tree (order Magnoliaceae) possessing great beauty both of foliage and flowers, and venerated both by Brahmanists and Buddhists. Images of Buddha are made of its wood. Its yellow flowers and their sweet oppressive perfume are much celebrated in the poetry of the Hindus. The timber of this and other species is useful and fragrant, and the bark and root are employed in native

medicine.

CHAMPAGNE WINE

Champagne, a district and ancient province of France, surrounded by Luxemburg, Lorraine, Burgundy, Ile de France, and Orléanais; now forming the departments of Marne, Haute-Marne, Aube, and Ardennes, and parts of Yonne, Aisne, Seine-et-Marne, and Meuse. It was popularly divided into Upper and Lower Champagne and Brie Champenoise, and was fertile in its western, barren in its eastern part. Its chief towns were Troyes, Bar-sur-Aube, Leon, and Rheims. province was about 180 miles long by 150 broad, its surface presenting extensive plains with ranges of hills, especially in the north and east.

The

In ancient times Champagne was known as a part of Gallia Lugdunensis, was subjugated by Cæsar, and afterwards was annexed to the kingdom established by the Franks. After the 11th century it had its own dukes, who were vassals of the French kings. By the marriage of Philip IV. with Joanna, heiress to the kingdom of Navarre, Champagne, and Brie, Champagne in 1284 came to the French crown, and was incorporated in 1328.

Champagne Wine is the produce of vineyards in the above-mentioned province of Champagne. There are white and red champagnes; the white is either sparkling or still. Sparkling or effervescent (mousseux) champagne is the result of a peculiar treatment during fermentation. In December the wine is racked off, and fined with isinglass, and in March it is bottled and tightly corked. To clear the wine of sediment, the bottles are placed in a sloping position with the necks downward, so that the sediment may be deposited in the necks of the bottles. When this sediment has been poured off, some portion of a liqueur (a solution of sugar-candy in cognac with flavouring essences) is added to the wine, and every securely re-corked. The fermentation being incombottle is filled up with bright clarified wine, and plete when the wine is bottled, the carbonic acid gas generated in a confined space exerts pressure on itself, and it thus remains as a liquid in the into gas, and thus communicates the sparkling wine. When this pressure is removed it expands property to champagne. The effervescence of the wine thus prepared bursts many bottles, in some cases 10 per cent.; and in seasons of early and sudden heat, as many as 20 and 25 per cent. have been burst. Still or non-effervescent champagne is first racked off in the March after the vintage. mousseux) has more alcohol, but less carbonic acid Creaming or slightly effervescent champagne (demigas than sparkling champagne.

The best varieties of this wine are produced at Rheims and Epernay, and generally on a chalky soil. Among white champagnes of the first class, the best are those of Sillery, which are of a fine amber hue, dry, spirituous, and possessing a superior bouquet; those of Ay and Mareuil are less spiritu ous, but are sparkling, with a pleasant bouquet, Other white wines of first class are those of Hautvilliers, Dizy, and Pierry.

The cellars in which the vintages are stored are cut out of the calcareous rock. The fact that the

sale of champagne is very extensive and lucrative, has naturally given rise to adulterations. Spurious champagne is readily manufactured by simply charging other light wines with carbonic acid gas. The popular notions about gooseberry champagne have but small foundation, if any. Gooseberryjuice is far more costly than grape-juice, wherever the grape flourishes, and in this country there are no such great gooseberry plantations as would be required for a flourishing champagne industry, which would demand a few hundred tons of fruit per annum. Recently, the German purveyors have succeeded in preparing light wines--such as Rhenish, Main, Neckar, Meissner, and Naumburg

CHAMPAIGN

—so much like genuine champagne, as to deceive even the connoisseur. And much champagne is made on French methods in the United States, not o in California but in some of the Atlantic stat Altogether, it is estimated that the French district produces 1,100,000 hectolitres (24,200,000 galons) of genuine champagne, of which, however, the finest growths make but a small part.

Champaign, a city of Illinois, 128 miles SSW. of Chicago by rail. It has furniture and wagon factories, a female seminary, and the Illinois Industrial University (1868). Pop. (1890) 5827. Champaran, a British Indian district in the NW. corner of Behar, with an area of 3531 sq. m. Champarty, or CHAMPERTY (a Norman-French word derived from campi pars = the right of the fendal lord to take part of the produce of land cultivated by his tenants), means in English law a bargain whereby the one party is to assist the other in recovering property, and is to share in the procosis. All such bargains are illegal, and therefore null and void. More particularly an agreement to aivance fun-is, or supply evidence, or professional assist ince, for remuneration contingent on success, and proportional to, or to be paid out of property recovered, is illegal; so is a purchase by a solicitor from his client of the subject matter of a pending suit; so is every such purchase, if the real object only to enable the purchaser to maintain the enit A man may, however, lawfully sell evidence, and may lawfully purchase an interest in property, thingh adverse claims exist which make litigation cary for realising that interest. The sale of a tuere right to sue is bad, the right to complain of a fraud is not a marketable commodity.' Champarty, as one form of Maintenance (q.v.), was made ertainal by various old English statutes, but these are never enforced, and the Criminal Law Commission recommended their repeal. In Scotland there is no law against maintenance and champarty. There is a common-law doctrine against what were in the Roman law called pacta de quotâ litis—i.e. parchases of litigations by professional men conted with the suit, who thus had exceptional antages in making such a contract. But this wond not probably be held to strike against an agreement by a non-professional person to advance Pards for litigation on terms depending on the rewa't, provided the terms were not extortionate or unconscionable. A Scottish act of 1594 prohibits Le purchases of pleas by advocates or agents. In with countries a solicitor can lawfully agree to charge nothing except in event of success; and by rent statute, agreements for the division of jeot's between town and country agents are legal. Although there are traces of the law ut champarty in the United States, the American aw resembles that of Scotland more than that of Eland. Contracts by solicitors for contingent es to the extent even of one-half the property in

ite, have been sustained. In general, however, fue Vaerican law construes professional contracts therely giving security for the true worth of the ces rendered.

Champfleury, the assumed name of JULES FARY BUSSON, French author, born at Laon, Jen September 1821. In a number of early pieces for the theatre, as well as later romances, he achieved ★mum distinction as a realistic writer. Works of peter value, however, are those on the history of amature, of literature, and of art, from 1825 to ~, and his Bibliographie Céramique (1882). Died inventer 6, 1889.

Champion (Low Lat. campio, from Low Lat. **p-xa, a combat,' whence also A.S. camp, ‘a In the judicial combats of the middle it was allowed to women, children, and

aged persons, except in cases of high treason or of parricide, to appear in the lists by a representative. Such a hired combatant was called a champion. Those who followed this profession were generally of the lowest class, and were held disreputable (see BATTLE, WAGER OF). At a later period, in the age of chivalry, the word champion came to have a more dignified acceptation, and signified a knight who entered the lists on behalf of an injured lady, of a child, or of any one incapable of self-defence (see CHIVALRY). In England, the crown had its champion, the Champion of England, who, mounted on horseback and armed to the teeth, challenged, at every coronation at Westminster, all who should deny the king to be the lawful sovereign. This office is said by Dugdale to have been conferred by William the Conqueror on Robert de Marmion, with the Lincolnshire of that manor, the championship was claimed under manor of Scrivelsby; and by reason of his tenure Henry IV. by Thomas Dymoke. Henry Lionel Dymoke, who died in 1875, was the nineteenth the ceremonies of the championship were last exermember of this family who held the office. But of articles in Notes and Queries (1887). cised at the coronation of George IV. See a series

Champlain', a beautiful lake separating the states of New York and Vermont, and penetrating, at its north end, about 6 miles into the Dominion of Canada. Lying 91 feet above sea-level, it is 110 miles long, by from 1 to 15 broad, empties itself into the St Lawrence by the Richelieu River, and has communication by canal with the Hudson. The lake, now an important trade channel, was the scene of several incidents of the French and Indian revolutionary wars; and here a British flotilla was defeated by the Americans, 11th September 1814. It was discovered by Champlain in 1609.

Champlain, SAMUEL DE, French governor of Canada, and founder of Quebec, was born at Brouage in Saintonge in 1567, and in 1603 made his first voyage to Canada. In 1604-7 he was engaged in exploring the coasts, and on his third voyage in 1608 he founded Quebec. In 1612 he was appointed lieutenant of Canada (under an honorary governor); and the following years were occupied with attacks on the Iroquois, explor ations of the interior, and journeys to France, until 1629, when he had to surrender to an English fleet, and was carried captive to England. Liber. ated in 1632, he returned to Canada in 1633, and died there in 1635. He published several works, reprinted at Quebec, in 4 vols. 1870.

Champlain Period, the name given by Professor Dana to the period succeeding the glacial, and therefore to some extent equivalent to the postglacial period of English geologists. See PLEISTOCENE.

Champollion, JEAN FRANCOIS, the founder of modern Egyptology, distinguished from his elder brother as Champollion the younger,' was born December 23, 1791, at Figeac, in the French department of Lot. He was educated at Grenoble, and devoted himself from his boyhood to the study of oriental languages, especially Coptic. In 1807 he went to Paris to pursue these studies, and in 1816 he became professor of History at the Lyceum of Grenoble. He had already published (1811 14) the first two volumes of a large work entitled L'Egypte sous les Pharaons (3 vols.), in which he reproduced, by means of Coptic documents, the national geography of Egypt, when he was expelled from his chair for his Bonapartist sympathies. Comparison of the monuments with the MSS. led him to the conviction that the three systems of Egyptian writing, the hieratic, demotic,

and hieroglyphic, were essentially one; and that the hieroglyphs were not signs for ideas, but for sounds. The first results of his labours were published in De l'Écriture hiératique des anciens Egyptiens (1821) and his famous Lettre à M. Dacier (1822); and in his Précis du Système hieroglyphique (1824; 2d ed. 1828) he established the conclusion that the hieroglyphs were partly phonetic or alphabetic characters. The final solution by which he arrived at the whole alphabet of twenty-five letters (see HIEROGLYPHICS) was pronounced by Niebuhr to be the greatest discovery of the century. Champollion was sent by the king on a scientific mission to Italy in 1824-26, and in 1826 was appointed conservator of the Egyptian collections; and about the same time he published his Pantheon Egyptien (1823), with drawings of Egyptian deities from the papyrus-rolls and notes regarding their Egyptian designations, and his Lettres relatives au Musée royal Egyptien de Turin (2 vols. 1824 26). In 1828-30 he accompanied a scientific expedition sent to Egypt by the king of

France. On his return to Paris he was made a

member of the Académie des Inscriptions (1830), and a new chair of Egyptology was founded for him in the Collège de France. He died March 4, 1832. The MSS. which he left unpublished, extending to more than 2000 pages, were bought by the Royal Library at Paris for 50,000 francs. His posthumous works are Lettres écrites d' Egypte et de Nubie (1833; new ed. 1867); Grammaire Egypti enne, his principal work (3 vols. 1836-41); Monuments de l'Egypte et de la Nubie (5 vols. 1835-45); Dictionnaire Egyptien en écriture hieroglyphique (1842-44); and Monuments de l'Egypte et de la Nubie (1844), the last work being afterwards continued and completed under the superintendence of Rougé.

Champollion-Figeac, JEAN JACQUES, an archeologist, was born 5th October 1778 at Figeac, in the department of Lot. After holding at Grenoble the offices of librarian and professor of Greek, he was appointed in 1828 conservator of MSS. in the Royal Library in Paris; but after the February revolution was deposed from office by Carnot. In 1848 he was appointed librarian of the palace of Fontainebleau. Besides the Antiquités de Grenoble (1807) and Recherches sur les patois de France (1809), his chief works include the Annales des Lagides (2 vols. 1819; supplement, 1821), Les Tournois du Roi René (1827-28), and numerous publications of French historical documents. After the death of his younger and more celebrated brother, Champollion Figeac prepared, with the help of his MSS., L'Égypte ancienne et moderne (1840) and L'écriture demotique égyptienne (1843), and published a Notice sur les manuscrits autographes de Champollion le Jeune (1842), Along with his son, Aimé Champollion-Figeac, he wrote the text to Silvestre's Paleographie universelle (4 vols. 1839-41). He died 9th May 1867.

Chance (through the French from Low Lat. cadentia), in its original and strict meaning, may be defined as that which determines the course of events, in the absence of law, ordinary causation, or providence. Strictly speaking, it is an idea which few would now be disposed to admit as corresponding to anything which really exists; the religious mind excluding it as inconsistent with the belief in the divine government, and the philosophical mind rejecting it as inconsistent with a recognition of universal laws of causation. word, however, it has always been, and always will be popularly accepted; and its use is correct so far as we overlook, or choose for the moment to throw out of view, the more universal connection of events, and regard them as their emergence, on

a

CHANCELLOR

a superficial view, appears to be determined. It is clear that chance, being only legitimate as an expression in popular parlance, is a term which is much too indefinite to admit of any kind of measurement. What is sometimes called the Doctrine of Chances is more properly the Theory of Probabilities, and will be dealt with under the head of PROBABILITY. For games of chance, see GAMING.

As

Chancel (Lat. cancellus, 'a screen'). The chancel, choir, or eastern part of a church was often separated from the nave by a screen of lattice-work, so as to prevent general access thereto, though not to interrupt either sight or sound. it was in this part of the chancel that the service the clergy were held to have a special right to it, was always performed previous to the Reformation, in return for which its repairs in general still fall parish. The chief pew in the chancel belongs to the on the impropriator, rector, or vicar, and not on the in the church, with this exception, belongs to the rector or impropriator, but the disposal of the seats whom the authority of the ordinary is delegated. ordinary, or, practically, to the churchwardens, to No monument, moreover, can be set up without the ordinary's consent. And where the freehold of the chancel vests in a lay impropriator, nevertheless the right of possession in it for public worship vests in the minister or churchwardens, so that they cannot be excluded from it, nor be charged with

tresspass for making a door into it from the churchyard. The term chancel is usually confined to parish churches which have no aisles around the choir, or chapels behind it or around it; and in this case the chancel and the choir have the same signification. In small churches which have no constructional chancel, the space within the altar rails is sometimes called by this name, but is more strictly styled the sanctuary.' But in larger | churches there are sometimes chancels at the ends of the side aisles, and this whether the choir has the character of a choir in the larger sense, or of a chancel. See CHURCH.

that the chief notary or scribe of the Roman Chancellor (Lat. cancellarius). It is said emperor was called chancellor, either because he cancelling, or crossing out (cancellare, to make was intrusted with the power of obliterating. lattice-work') such expressions in the edicts of the prince as seemed to him to be at variance with the laws, or otherwise erroneous; or (more prob ably) because he sat intra cancellos, within the lattice-work or railings (cancelli) which were erected to protect the emperor from the crowding of the people when he sat in judgment. Neither the title nor the office of chancellor is at all peculiar to England. The chancellor of France (Chancelier de France) from a very early time was an officer of several other officers, bearing also the title of state of great power and dignity, under whom chancellor, were employed in the administration of justice and in the defence of the public order. The office was abolished at the Revolution; and though it was restored by the Bourbons, many of the functions of the old chancellor were transferred to the minister of justice, and have ever since been held by him.

In most of the other countries of Europe there are officers of state who bear this or analogous titles, though their powers and duties are very various. In medieval Germany the archbishop and elector of Mainz was Arch-chancellor of the Holy Roman empire, and appointed a Vice-chancellor, The chief functionary in the Austrian empire has often been termed chancellor; and on the reconstitution of the German empire, Prince Bismarck was made Chancellor of the Empire' (Reichskanzler).

CHANCELLOR

The Russian minister of Foreign Affairs is sometimes called Vice-chancellor. Besides these statechancellors, there were officers in many other capacities to whom the title was given. Every bishop has his chancellor in the Church of Rome, and there are still chancellors of cathedrals, dioceses, universities, &c.

Chancellor, LORD. It is usually said that the existence of the office in England, as in the other states of Europe, is to be ascribed to the influence which the constitution of the Roman empire had on the constitutions of the modern nations. This influence was exercised in no small measure through the medium of the church, the profession of the law being generally exercised by velesiastics; and it is for this reason, probably, that the bishop and the king are furnished with others bearing the same title, and exercising analogous functions. Soon after the Norman Const the English chancellor became a judicial offer of high rank (see CHANCERY), and a ent dential adviser of the sovereign in state airs Being charged with the supervision of charters and other instruments, he obtained the stody of the great seal. The office of chancrilor. or Keeper (q.v.), which in 1576 was Geared to be exactly the same, is created withost writ or patent, by the mere delivery of the Krat seal The chancellor, if a baron, takes prudence of every temporal lord not a member of the royal family, and of all bishops except the Abhishop of Canterbury. To slay the chancellor treason The chancellor is a privy-councillor his offee, and prolocutor, or speaker of the House of Lords, by prescription. Though the form in which his tenure of office is terminated 2 by the resumption of the great seal by the sovereign, the chancellor is now always a cabinet Finister and resigns office with the party to which he is attached. He has the appointment of all pustics of the peace throughout the kingdom, but tas privilege he exercises generally on the recommendation of the lord-lieutenants. But the most important, and, as it now seems, somewhat anomas branch of his patronage, arises out of his Aaung been originally an ecclesiastic. Though the Last bishop who held the office was John Williams, Achinshop of York, who was Lord Keeper from 1621 to 1625, the chancellor still continues to be patron of a large number of crown livings (though in 1863 about 300 were sold to augment the incomes of those sold and those retained), and visitor of all bpitals and colleges of the king's foundation. As representing the paternal character of the overeign. again, the chancellor is the general protector of all infants, idiots, and lunatics, and has the supervision of all charitable uses in the klom. His jurisdiction in lunacy is comtatted to him by special delegation from the movereign. As regards his judicial patronage, the arrangement is, that the chancellor appoints in

al all the judges of the superior courts, exet the chief-justice, who is nominated by the pruse minister of the day. He also appoints the ages of the county courts, and various subordiaste officers. All these functions the chancellor performs in addition to his extensive duties as a at, in the House of Lords, the Privy-council, the Court of Appeal, and the Chancery Division of the High Court of Justice. Objection has ten been taken to the combination of judicial Ad political offices in the same person, but the proposal to appoint a minister of justice has not vet found favour. The salary of the chancellor is 1000 a year, and he has an annuity of £5000 on

Daring from office.

Among the notable Lord Chancellors of England have been Cardinal Wolsey (1515), Sir Thomas

More (1529), Bishop Gardiner (1553), Sir Francis Bacon (1617), Hyde, Earl of Clarendon (1660), Ashley, Earl of Shaftesbury (1672), Lords Jeffreys (1685), Hardwicke (1737), Thurlow (1778), Eldon (1801, 1807), Erskine (1806), Lyndhurst (1827, 1834, 1841), Brougham (1830), Carnworth (1852, 1865), Chelmsford (1858, 1866), Campbell (1859), Westbury (1861), Cairns (1868, 1874), Hatherley (1868), Selborne (1872, 1880), Halsbury (1885), Herschell (1886), Halsbury again (1886). See Lord Campbell's Lives of the Chancellors (1845-47).

The office of Chancellor of Scotland, which was analogous to that of England, was abolished at the Union, a keeper of the Great Seal (q.v.) being appointed. The English chancellor is described as Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain and Ireland; but in Scotland he has scarcely any jurisdiction, and in Ireland there is a separate chancellor, whose powers and duties are similar to those of the English chancellor.

CHANCELLOR of a CathedRAL is an officer who formerly had charge of the chapter library, custody of the common seal, superintendence of the choir practices, and headship of the cathedral schools; sometimes being also visitor of all church schools in the diocese. Hence he was often styled Scholasticus or Capischolius ( = Caput Schola). These functions are now generally in abeyance.

CHANCELLOR OF A DIOCESE is, as legal adviser to the bishop, an ecclesiastical judge, uniting the functions of vicar-general and official principal, appointed to assist the bishop in questions of ecclesiastical law, and hold his courts for him. By an act of Henry VIII. it is provided that he may be a layman, whether married or single, provided he be doctor of the civil law, lawfully create and made in some university. By the canons of 1603 he must be a bachelor of law, at the least, or a master of arts. There are certain cases, however, in which the bishop must sit in person.

For other Chancellors, see UNIVERSITY, ExCHEQUER, LANCASTER (DUCHY OF).

Chancellor, RICHARD, a daring English seaman, who seems to have been brought up in the household of the father of Sir Philip Sidney, and was chosen in 1553 as captain of the Bonaventure and pilot-general' of Sir Hugh Willoughby's expedition in search of a North east Passage to India. The ships were parted in a storm off the Lofoden Islands, and Chancellor, after waiting seven days at Vardohus, the rendezvous that had been agreed upon, proceeded alone into the White Sea, and travelled thence overland to the court at Moscow, where he was very hospitably treated, and was able to conclude a treaty giving freedom of trade to English ships. His interesting account of Russia was published in Hakluyt's Navigations. Next spring Chancellor rejoined his ship and returned to England, where his hopeful reports led to the establishment soon after of the Muscovy Company. In the summer of 1555 he made a second voyage in the Bonaventure to the White Sea, and was at Moscow once more in the succeeding winter. In July 1556 he set sail on his voyage homewards, but on 10th November was lost in the wreck of his ship in Aberdour Bay off the Aberdeenshire coast.

vania county, Virginia, near the south bank of the Chancellorsville, a post-station of SpottsylRappahannock, 11 miles W. of Fredericksburg. In a desperate battle here, May 2 and 3, 1863, General Lee defeated the Federal forces under Hooker. The Confederates, however, suffered a severe loss in Stonewall Jackson (q.v.), who was accidentally wounded by his own men.

Chance-medley and Chaud-medley are law expressions, which practically both mean the

same thing, that a particular homicide was justifiable because it was done in the hot blood caused by an unprovoked assault. The phrase has no reference to homicide by accident. See MANSLAUGHTER, SANCTUARY.

6

Chancery, the office of a chancellor or ambassador; a place in which writs, &c. are prepared and formally recorded. In England the Chancery was in early times the office in which writs and forms of process were prepared; some of these forms being kept in the Hanaper or hamper, and some in the Petty Bag. When the chancellor became a judicial officer of the first rank, the COURT OF CHANCERY exercised a very wide jurisdiction. The court could not maintain its hold on criminal cases, or on civil cases in which the common-law courts could do adequate justice; but the equitable jurisdiction of the court was established, after a keen struggle with the common lawyers. The assistance of the chancellor, as keeper of the king's conscience,' was invoked in cases where the common law might work injustice. A trustee, for example, was in law the owner of the trust property, but the Court of Chancery, which acted in personam, would compel him to render an account of his trust to the beneficial owner. This power to enforce equitable claims gave the court an administrative jurisdiction which was used for the protection of infants, married women, mortgagors, &c. The prejudice of the common lawyers against the court was due to the fact that its extensive powers were exercised at the discretion of the chancellor, and not according to settled rules. So late as the time of Charles II., Shaftesbury was thought to be a good chancellor, though he was not a lawyer. A succession of eminent chancellors, from Lord Nottingham to Lord Eldon, developed the rules of equity into a logical system. They did so, it must be admitted, at the expense of unfortunate suitors; and the Court of Chancery became a byword for delay and expense. Some of the evils satirised, and somewhat exaggerated, by Dickens in Bleak House (1853) have been removed by modern legislation.

The judges of the Court of Chancery were the Lord Chancellor, the Master of the Rolls (originally a subordinate officer, but afterwards an independ ent judge), a Vice-chancellor added in 1813, and two more Vice-chancellors added in 1841, when the equity business of the Court of Exchequer was transferred. Two Lords Justices of Appeal were added in 1851. On the passing of the Judicature Acts the inconvenient and indefensible distinction

between courts of equity and law was abolished, and the judges of the Court of Chancery became members of the Court of Appeal, or of the Chancery Division of the High Court of Justice.

Among the officers of the Court of Chancery were the MASTERS IN CHANCERY, whose office is now abolished, their duties being for the most part assigned to the chief-clerks in the Chancery Division. The office of Accountant-general is also abolished, and Her Majesty's Paymaster-general is charged with the duty of accounting for funds in Chancery'-i.e. for cash and stocks standing in the account of any cause or matter before the court. The Pay Office return for 1886 shows the following remarkable figures: Accounts open, 39,944; balance of stocks, &c. (exclusive of foreign securities), £71,946,527; balance of cash, £3,931,054. Under the Chancery Funds Act, 1872, unclaimed balances are transferred to the National Debt Commissioners, but the Consolidated Fund is liable in respect of any claim on these balances under an order of the court.

In various British colonies Courts of Chancery have been established, and the distinction between courts of law and equity has been preserved. But

CHANDLER

in the colonies and the United States, as in England, the fusion of law and equity' has been effected by legislation. The anomalies of the old system have been removed; but many of the distinctive doctrines and rules of the Court of Chancery remain. In several of the original

thirteen states there are distinct Courts of Chancery, but in most of the United States equity powers have been conferred on the higher law-courts, and the principles of equity are administered therein. By the United States constitution and several Acts of Congress, equity Powers commensurate with those of the Court of Chancery in England were conferred on the Federal Courts.

The CHANCERY OFFICE, in Scotland, is an office in the General Register House at Edinburgh, managed by a director, in which all royal charters of novodamus, patents of dignities, gifts of offices, remissions, legitimations, presentations, commissions, and other writs appointed to pass the Great and Quarter Seals, are recorded. Prior to 1874 a great number of royal charters by progress passed through this office; and this is still done with regard to precepts from Chancery in favour of heirs in crown holdings. It is the duty of the director to keep a record of the decrees of service pronounced in favour of heirs by the Sheriff of Chancery, who holds a special court in Edinburgh for considering such petitions, and to send printed indexes of his record

The

to the sheriff-clerks in the various counties. record kept by the director also includes the decrees of service pronounced in the different sheriff-courts, and of these the director is bound to furnish extracts. See GREAT SEAL.

on

Chancre. See SYPHILIS.

Chanda, chief town of a district of India, the south-west frontier of the Central Provinces, 90 miles S. of Nagpur. Its stone battlemented walls are 5 miles round, and 15 to 20 feet high. Pop. (1881) 16,137.

Chandausi, a town of the North-west Provinces of India, 27 miles S. of Moradabad. Pop. (1881) 27,521.

of Gwalior. It is now an insignificant place, but Chanderi, a town of Central India, 105 miles S. its fort and many ruined buildings attest its strength and splendour in former times, when it is said to have contained 14,000 stone houses, 384 markets, 360 caravanserais, and 12,000 mosques.

Chandernagore (properly Chandan-nagar, 'city of sandalwood '), a French city, with a scanty territory of about 3 sq. m., on the right bank of the Hugli, 22 miles above Calcutta by rail. Established in 1673, the place for a while rivalled Calcutta; now, through the gradual silting up of the river, it has lost most of its commercial advantages, and has little external trade. It is the seat of a French sub-governor, with a few soldiers, and has a population of about 23,000, including some 300 Europeans and Eurasians. The town was bombarded and captured by the English in 1757, restored in 1763, twice retaken, and finally restored to the French in 1816.

Chandler, RICHARD, a learned classical archæologist, was born at Elson, Hants, in 1738, and educated at Winchester and at Queen's and Magdalen colleges, Oxford. His first important work was Marmora Oxoniensia (1763), an elaborate description of the Oxford marbles. He afterwards trav elled through Greece and Asia Minor, with Revett, architect, and Pars, a painter, at the expense of the Dilettanti Society, to examine and describe the antiquities. The materials collected were given to the world in the following publications: Ionian Antiquities (1769), Inscriptiones Antiquæ (1774), Travels in Asia Minor (1775), and Travels in Greece