LAMBETH-LAMENNAIS.

till after the death of the great Protector, when he became the head of the cabal of malcontent officers ho overthrew the feeble administration of Richard Cromwell. L. was now looked upon as the leader of the Fifth Monarchy or extreme republican party; suppressed, with considerable vigour, the royalist insurrection in Cheshire, August 1659; and two months afterwards, dismissing the remnant of the Rump Parliament, virtually governed the country along with his officers under the title of the Committee of Safety.' For a brief period, his position was considered so important, that Charles II. was advised to make terms with him by marrying hia daughter. The counterplot of Monk, however, frustrated all his designs; and on the 22d of April he was taken prisoner by a Colonel Ingoldsby, tried in 1662, and banished to the isle of Guernsey, where he died in 1692.

LA'MBETH, a parliamentary borough of England, in the county of Surrey, forms a great part of the south-west quarter of London. It is said to cover an area of 8840 acres, and had, in 1871, a pop. of 379,112. Besides Lambeth Palace, which has been the official residence of the archbishops of Canterbury for several centuries, it contains Astley's Theatre, the site of the once famous Vauxhall Gardens, and the Surrey Zoological Gar

dens. It returns two members to the House of Commons.

LA'MBREQUIN, a word used in Heraldry in three senses: 1. The mantling attached to the helmet, and represented as depending over the shield (see MANTLING); 2. A Wreath (q. v.); 3. The point of a label. See LABEL.

LAME'GO, an old town of Portugal, in the province of Beira, is situated amid rocky mountains on an affluent of the Douro, about three miles from that river, and forty-six miles east of Oporto. It contains a Gothic cathedral; and there are ancient remains both Roman and Moorish. Pop. 9500.

colours; the former, black or brown. The larvæ are soft, cylindrical, with six small legs, and the body always curved. Dung-bertles, stag-beetles, cock. chafers, &c., belong to this family.

LAMELLIRO'STRES, in the system of Cuvier, a large group of web-footed birds (Palmipedes), distinguished by a thick bill having tooth-like lamella at its edges, apparently more for the purpose of straining water from the food than of masticating or comminuting it. The Anatidae and Mergida (ducks, swans, geese, goosanders and mergansers) constitute the of Lamellirostres. group

LAMENNAIS, FÉLICITE ROBERT DE, one of the most celebrated of the politico-religious writers of France during the present century, was born of a family engaged in the shipping-trade at St Malo, June 6, 1782. With the exception of some instruction in Latin, which he received from his elder brother, LAME'LLIBRANCHIA'TA, a class of acephalL. was, owing to the revolutionary troubles, almost ous molluscs, all of which have bivalve shells (see entirely self-taught. His early turn of thought was BIVALVES), and which respire by gills in the form of strongly religious, as well as decidedly literary; and vascular plates of membrane attached to the inner resisting all his father's efforts to fix him in comsurface of the mantle. Oysters, cockles, and mussels mercial life, he pursued a literary career, and in are familiar examples. The adductor muscle, which 1807 received an appointment as teacher of mathecloses the shell, is single in some, double in the matics in the college of his native town. His first greater number. More important differences exist work, published in the next year, On the State of the in the powers of locomotion possessed by some, in a strain of high orthodoxy, and directed against Church in France during the 18th Century, is written and denied to others. Thus, oysters are fixed to one spot by one of the valves of the shell; but most the materialistic philosophy of the 18th c., its of the L. have the power of moving by swimming, time. A few years later having meanwhile taken influence still subsisting in the literature of his own leaping, or burrowing in sand, sometimes in more the clerical tonsure he produced, in conjunction than one of these ways, being provided for this pur- with his brother, a treatise On the Tradition of pose with a fleshy muscular organ called the foot. Some, as mussels, when they have found a suitable the Church on the Institution of Bishops, which arose place, fix themselves there by a Byssus (q. v.). The out of the conflict of Napoleon with the Holy See mouth of the L. is jawless and toothless, and all as to the affairs of the church in France. During zeem to depend for their food on the currents of water continually brought by ciliary action into the mouth. They all seem more or less sensible to light, and numerous small red spots on the edge of the mantle of some are supposed to be eyes. They have organs of hearing, and labial tentacles, which are supposed to exercise the sense

of smell.

LAMELLICO'RNES, a very numerous family of coleopterous insects, of the section Pentamera, containing the largest of the beetles, as well as many species remarkable for peculiar conformations of the head and thorax. The three last joints of the

the Hundred Days, he was obliged to flee to England, where he was received by the celebrated Abbé Caron; and on his return to France, he entered the seminary of St Sulpice, where he received priest's orders in 1816. A year afterwards, he published his most celebrated work on the side of which is a work of exceeding acuteness, and of orthodoxy, An Essay on Indifference in Religion, great learning and brilliancy. In this work, however, he pushes the claim of authority to such a length, and makes all reasoning resolve itself so completely into authority, that even those who agreed in the conclusion at which he arrived, were not surprised at the recoil by which, this princiole

LAMENTATIONS OF JEREMIAH-LÄMMERGEIER.

closely connected in regard to their subject-matter; but considerable diversity of opinion exists con cerning their artistic relation to each other. Some, as De Wette, Ewald, and Keil, have tried to shew that they are really parts of one poem; others, as Eichhorn and Bertholdt, that they were originally quite independent and isolated elegies; while a third party, as Lowth and Davidson, hold that there is a certain pervading harmony of sentiment and idea, indicating, probably, that they were com posed by the poet-prophet under the same condition of religious feeling. The structure of the laments is very artificial. Most critics are satisfied, from internal evidence, that the tradition which makes Jeremiah their author is worthy of credence, and that they were all written by him shortly after the destruction of Jerusalem.

LAMINA'RIA. See TANGLE.

LAMINATION, the arrangement of rocks in thin layers or laminæ, the condition of a large proportion of the earth's strata. Shale deposits exhibit this structure very plainly, being frequently easily separable into the thin lamina in which they were originally deposited. Shale is the fine sediment that settles down at the bottom of some tranquil or slightly moving water. The laminæ indicate interruption in the supply of the materials, which may have been occasioned by successive tides, by frequent or periodical floods, or by the carrying medium having access to a supply of different material, passing, e. g., from mud to sand, and back again to mud. The lamina of the brick-clay deposits are separated, in many places, by the finest sprinkling of sand, which is almost invisible in the vertical sections. The layers are occasionally obvious, from their being of different shades of colour, often produced by the bleaching of the layers when they were deposited; but frequently the various laminæ of a bed are so united, and the bed so homogeneous, that except when the face is exposed to weathering, the laminated structure is not visible. This condition seems to have resulted from the shortness of the interruptions in the depo. sit not permitting the solidification of any of the layers until all was deposited, when the whole set cohered together as a single bed.

of authority once abandoned in his after-conflict with the church, his mind rushed into the opposite extreme of utter and unlimited unbelief. The celebrity which this work won for him led to a design on the part of the pope, Leo XII., to promote L. to the cardinalate. This design, however, was afterwards abandoned. L.'s political views, from the first moment of the Restoration, had been liberal. Nevertheless, he joined himself to a powerful and active section of the most distinguished members of the royalist and church party-Chateaubriand, De Bonald, Frayssinous, and others, the organ of which was a journal named the Conservateur, and afterwards the Defenseur, and the Drapeau Blanc; but he rapidly outstripped the views of most of his colleagues. He was fined, in 1824, for a work On the Relations of Religion and Politics. After the revolution of 1830, while he adopted in its fullest sense the doctrine of the sovereignty of the people, he continued a zealous adherent of the faith of the church; and, in conjunction with a number of ardent young friends, all of whom afterwards rose in their various lines to distinction-Montalembert, Lacordaire, Gerbet, and others-he established a journal called L'Avenir, the aim of which was to reconcile liberty and religion. The doctrines of this journal on the separation of church and state and on many other popular topics, gave grave offence to the ecclesiastical authorities. They were censured by the pope, Gregory XVI., in 1832; and L., in obedience to the papal sentence, discontinued his journal, and professed his future submission to authority; but from this date his opinions underwent a rapid change, and in a work which he published in the year 1834, and which obtained an immediate and unprecedented popularity in France, Paroles d'un Croyant, proclaimed his complete and irreconcilable rupture with the church of which he had long been the champion. The work was immediately condemned at Rome; but it passed in France through innumerable editions, and was translated into all the languages of Europe; and the author's reply to the papal condemnation was in a still more pointedly aggressive work, in 1836, entitled Affaires de Rome. With his characteristic impetuosity, he now threw himself into the arms of the opposite party. His successive publications, The Book of the People (1837), The Country and the Government (1840), On Religion (1841), The Guide of the First Age (1844), A Voice from Prison (1846), were but so many new utterances of the most extreme democratic principles. The revolution in his religious sentiments was equally decisive and complete; he not merely ceased to be a Romanist, but even a believer. In his last illness, he declined all religious ministrations; and at his death, which occurred February 27, 1854, he gave directions that his interment should not be marked by any religious ceremony. He also directed, by his will, that certain papers which he left ready for press should be published without alteration; and on the refusal of his niece to surrender these papers, a suit-at-ranked among the Vulturida, to which it approaches law was instituted, which terminated in an order for the surrender of the papers, in accordance with the will of the testator. The most elaborate work of L.'s latter period is his Esquisse d'une Philosophie (4 vols. 1840-1846).

LAMENTATIONS OF JEREMIAH (Megillath Echa; lxx. Thrênoi), the name given to one of the canonical books of the Old Testament, containing laments over the desolation of the land, the exile of the people, the destruction of the first temple, the fall of the kingdom of Judah, and the writer's own woes. These laments are five in number, and are

LA'MMAS-DAY, the 1st of August, is one of the cross quarter-days, or half-quarter days, in England. On this day, which is the feast of St Peter ad Vincula, it was customary in early times to make offerings of the first-fruits of the harvest, and hence the feast took the name of Hlafmæsse (Ang.-Sax., loaf-mass or loaf-festival), afterwards In Scotland, it is the corrupted into Lammas. practice with farmers to pay the half year's rent due at Whitsunday on Lammas-day.

LÄ'MMERGEIER (Gypaëtos barbatus), a large bird of prey, also called the BEARDED VULTURE BEARDED GRIFFIN, and GIER-EAGLE. It is the ly known species of its genus, which forms a connecting link between vultures and eagles, although commonly

It

most nearly. The full-grown L. is of a shining
brownish black on the upper parts, with a white
stripe along the shaft of each feather; the head is
whitish, with black stripes at the eyes; the neck
and under-part of the body are rusty yellow.
is 4 feet high when sitting; nearly 5 feet long; and
from 9 to 10 feet in expanse of wing. It is very
bold and rapacious, swooping down on hares, lambs,
young goats, chamois, &c., and sometimes carrying
off children. It lives on animals newly killed, eating
carrion only when pressed by necessity.
once pretty common in the Alps, but is now rare

It was

LAMMERMOORS-LAMPREY.

LAMPREY-LAMPS.

purpose of spawning. It was formerly in the highest
esteem for the table, and it is an old custom for the
city of Gloucester to present a L. pie annually to
the sovereign. Worcester is also famous for its L.
pies and potted lampreys. In Scotland, a strong
prejudice exists against the lamprey.-The L. of
North America are the P. Americanus, P. nigricans,
and Ichthyomyzon appendix. -A smaller species,
the RIVER L. (P. fluviatilis), often called the LAM-
PERN, is very abundant in some of the rivers of
England, at certain seasons of the year. It is seldom
more than 15 or 18 inches long, blue above, silvery
white beneath. It is used for pies, like the com-
mon lamprey.-A little blood thrown into water
where lampreys are supposed to be, soon attracts
them to the spot. They are caught by paskets and
other traps, like eels. They are very tenacious of life,
living for days in a damp place, out of the water.
LAMPS are contrivances in which to burn any
light-giving material, and so make use of its illum-
inating power. The most primitive lamps were
probably the skulls of animals, in which fat was
burned; and certain sea-shells formed admirable
lamps for those to whom they were attainable.
Even at the present time, occasionally may be seen
suspended in the cottages of Zetland, shells of the
'roaring buckie' (Fusus antiquus, q. v.), which form,
nerhaps, the most ancient kind of lamp in existence.
When pottery and metal began to be used, the
principle of these natural lamps was for a long time
retained, as seen in ancient Egyptian, Greek, and
Roman lamps (fig. 1), and in the stone cups and
boxes of northern nations. The invention of lamps
has been attributed to the Egyptians, but it is far
more probable they received it from the older

used, and being partly filled with grease, a wick
was thrust down through the middle, and being
lighted, consumed the fat as it melted. Stone cups
of this kind are occasionally dug up in Scotland
and elsewhere: in principle, they are the same
as the padelle, used in Italian illuminations, and
the old grease-pots, which formed the foot-lights of
our theatres not many years since, and which may
The Esquimaux form square
still occasionally be seen in the travelling-shows
at country fairs.
boxes of soap-stone, and use them in the same way.
No great improvement took place in the con-
struction of lamps until the beginning of the present
century. Taste had been shewn in the designs, but
the principle remained the same; a wick sucking up
oil from the reservoir of the lamp to supply itself
during combustion, and nothing more, if we except
the improvement effected by the invention of M.
Argand in 1784. See ARGAND. In 1803, M. Carcel,
another Frenchman, made an excellent improvement
on the lamp by applying clock-work, which acts by
raising the oil up tubes in connection with the wick,
so that the latter is kept continually soaked.
properly managed, this is perhaps the best of all
oil-lamps, as it will keep up a well sustained and
brilliant light for seven or eight hours, and the light
rather increases than otherwise as the lamp burns
and becomes warmer, thereby rendering the oil more

If

Fig. 1.

civilisation of India. Herodotus (ii. c. 62) reminds
us of the Chinese feast of lanterns, by speaking of
the feast of lamps at Sais, in Egypt. Such lamps as
that in fig. 1 were called lychna by the Greeks, and
lucerna by the Romans, and various modifications of
the form are frequently found in the ruins of Greek
and Roman cities; very considerable numbers have
been obtained from the excavations of Tarsus and
The principle in
of Pompeii and Herculaneum.
all is the same. At first, these lucerna were made
of unglazed pottery, and only with one wick-
hole; but better material and more elaborate forms
were introduced, and their light-giving power was
increased by their being made to hold several
wicks, from two to twelve. The wick used in this
lamp was generally made of flax-tow, sometimes,
bowever, of rushes and other vegetable fibres.

Amongst the northern nations of antiquity, lamps were in use, but the difference of climate necessitated a different kind of lamp. The limpid oils of the present day were unknown to our Celtic and Saxon forefathers; besides, the cold winters would have solidified them, and they would not have Deen drawn up by the wick, if arranged as in the old Roman and Greek lucerne. The solid fat of various animals was their chief illuminating material, except on the sea-coast, where seal and whale oil occasionally helped them. Small open stole pots, afterwards exchanged for metal, were

Fig. 2.

LAMP-SHELL-LANARKSHIRE.

more convex than the other, prolonged backwards into a kind of beak, which is pierced by a hole or fissure. Internally, there is a delicate bony framework, of two branches, attached to the dorsal valve, by which the arms (see BRACHIOPODA) are supported. This is called the loop, and often by shell-collectors the carriage-spring. It is well seen in many fossil Terebratula. The recent species are numerous, and very widely distributed from the polar to the tropical seas; the fossil species are extremely numerous.

which combines the greatest amount of illuminating shell, of which one of the valves is larger and power with elegance of form, easy management, and general economy. Its body is a cylinder, B, usually about 8 inches in height by 5 inches in diameter, the lower part of which contains the store of oil. On the top of the oil rests a piston, P, which is constantly pressed down by a spiral spring situated between it and the t p of the barrel. The piston is represented in the figure as resting on the bottom. Through the piston is inserted a small tube, which passes up to the burner at the top; and the pressure of the spring on the piston causes a constant stream of oil to rise up through this tube and feed the wick, C. What is not consumed, flows over the burner, D. and back into the barrel above the piston. It is above the piston also that fresh oil is introduced. When the piston has reached the bottom, it is wound up again by a rack and pinion, E; and a vacuum being thus formed, the oil above it is forced to the underside through a valve-kind of contrivance round its edge.

It is obvious that in this machine the flow of oil will be greatest when the piston has been newly wound up, and the spring is at its greatest tension. This inequality is regulated, or moderated-hence the name of the lamp-by an extremely ingenious contrivance. The tube through which the oil ascends (represented in fig. 3 on an enlarged scale) consists of two parts-a narrower, b, fixed to the piston, and rising with it, and a wider, c, fixed to the burner, and forming a sheath into which the other ascends. Within the upper tube is placed a rod or wire, G, which descends so as to enter only a short way into the tube b, when the latter is drawn down to the full, as represented in the figure. Now, the effect of the rod within the narrow tube at r is to retard the passage of the oil; and it is evident that the effect will be greater the further the tube b is pushed up, because the narrow part is then made longer. The obstruction thus increases and diminishes with the force of the spring, and the flow of oil is rendered equable.

The use of oil-lamps has been greatly diminished by the rapid extension of gas-works, and by the invention of lamps to burn camphine, which is rectified oil of turpentine, and the various kinds of naphtha petroleums and paraffine oils.

LAMPY'RIS AND LAMPY'RIDÆ. See GLOW.

WORM.

LA'NARK, a parliamentary and municipal burgh and market-town of Scotland, in the county of the same name, is situated on an elevation rising from the Clyde, 30 miles south-west of Edinburgh. Its antiquity is attested by the fact, that here, in 978, Kenneth II. assembled a parliament, or meeting of the estates of the realm. Little trade is here carried on; but the town derives some support from the numbers attracted by the beauty of the scenery in the vicinity. L unites with Hamilton and three other burghs in sending a member to parliament. Pop. (1871) 5099.-About a mile to the south, lies the manufacturing village of NEW LANARK (pop. 1396), celebrated as the scene of Robert Owen's experiment (1815-1827) for the social improvement of the working-classes.

to this district

LA'NARKSHIRE, or CLYDESDALE, an inland county of Scotland, lies west of the shires of Edinburgh, Linlithgow, and Peebles. Its length is 54 miles, and width 34 miles. Its area is 889 square miles, or 568,867 acres, of which there are under cultivation 321,568 acres. This county is subdivided into upper, middle, and lower wards. The first of these comprises more than one-half of the county, and consists in a great measure of hills and moorish ground; the second contains about 160,000 acres, much of which is unprofitable; the third, which contains the city of Glasgow, is nearly all cultivated, although very little of the soil, unless that bordering on the Clyde, is of first quality. The principal hills are the Lowthers, which rise in Green Hill to the height of 2403 feet; Tintock is These lamps require to be formed so as 2335 feet high. In the upper ward is the village to insure perfect combustion of the material, of Leadhills, which is 1323 feet above sea-level, for which purpose the reservoir of fluid is being the highest inhabited place in Scotland. This placed much below the flame, and the county possesses great mineral wealth. There are wick passes into it and sucks it up by upwards of 150 collieries, and 13 iron-works, having capillary attraction. The glass chimney nearly 90 furnaces in blast. The cotton, flax, which surrounds the wick is often made silk, and woollen factories (described in the article very narrow at the bottom and top, with GLASGOW) are very extensive, and constitute one an enlargement round the flame (fig. 4). of the most important sources of wealth in the This figure insures a great indraught of country. The county is watered principally by the air at the bottom, which keeps the com- Clyde (q. v.) and its affluents. L. was famous for bustion so perfect, that in a well-made its orchards as early as the time of the Venerable Fig. 4. lamp the smoke is imperceptible; in addi- Bede. They yielded, early in the present century, tion, there is an arrangement surrounding as much as £8000 yearly, but have latterly fallen the wick-tube for admitting air, and bringing it off; and the ground is more profitably employed into contact with the flame. These lamps give a in producing gooseberries, vegetables, &c., for the most brilliant light; and as they not only have Glasgow market. The climate of L. is aoist, and greater illuminating power, but are of cheap con- in many of the lower districts mild and genial, but struction, and are very economical in other respects, often cold and boisterous in the high grounds. It they have come into very extensive use. Much is not in general well suited for raising grain-crops; care is required, however, in the selection of the but much of it is excellently adapted for the rearing fluid to be burned; some of the newly discovered of stock and for dairy purposes. In 1873, the numpetroleums and rock-oils are so very inflammable ber of occupants of land was 3068, and the total acreand explosive, that their use is dangerous. Pratt's age under rotation was 242, 188: of which there were Astral oil is regarded as devoid of danger, being care-4828 acres of wheat; 915 barley; 46,547 oats; 10,272 fully freed from benzine. acres turnips; and 7485 acres potatoes. The total acreage under corn crops was 54,478; under green crops, 19,395; under clover and grasses, 79,906; and

LAMP-SHELL (Terebratula), a genus of brachiopodous molluscs (see BRACHIOPODA), having a delicate