writers, to be the large village of Tafylch, the chief place in Jebal, west of the Edomitish mourtains. The suggestion of Schultz that Tophel may have been the place where the Israelites purchased food and drink of the Edomites (2:28, 29) has much to be said in its favor; for the situation of Tophe warrants the supposition that it was here that they passed for the first time from the wilderness to an inhabited land.

toph, or drum, from the drums used to drown the cries of children who were made to pass through the fire to Moloch. Gesenius says: "As to the etymology of the name (toʻ-feth, spittle), it is best referred to the root ♫♫ (toof, to spif), and rendered place to be spit upon, to be abhorred (Job 17:6)." Others regard Tophet as from (tofteh', contempt), the place of burning dead bodies.

nom

2. Figurative. "His teeth shall be white with milk" (Gen. 49:12) seems to denote a superabundance of milk, as "his eyes shall be red with wine" denotes plenty thereof. "I will send upon them the teeth of beasts" (Deut. 32:24) expresses devastation by wild animals. "The teeth of lions" (Job 4:10) is a symbol of the cruelty and rapacity of the wicked. "To take one's flesh into one's teeth" (Job 13:14) is thought by some to mean to gnaw it with anguish (comp. Rev. 16:10), while others interpret it "to be intent upon the main-phet is commonly supposed to be derived from TO'PHET, or TOʻPHETH. 1. Name. To tenance of life, as a wild beast upon the preservation of his prey, by holding it between its teeth and carrying it away" (Delitzsch, Com., in loc.). Gnashing of teeth means, properly, grinding the teeth with rage or despair (Job 16:9; Psa. 35:16; 37:12; 112:10; Lam. 2:16; Matt. 8:12, etc.). By "the skin of my teeth" (Job 19:20) is generally understood the gums; Delitzsch, however, thinks it to be the periosteum, a skin in the jaw. Job's disease was such that the gums especially were destroyed and wasted away about the teeth, only the periosteum round about the teeth being still left to him, and single remnants of the covering of his loose and projecting teeth. "To smite upon the jawbone" and "to break the teeth" mean to disgrace and disable (Psa. 3:7; comp. Mic. 6:13; 1 Kings 20:35; Lam. 8:30). The teeth of calumniators, etc., are compared to "spears and arrows" (Psa. 57:4; comp. 1 Sam. 24:9); and to "break the teeth" of such persons is to disable them (Psa. 58:6). To "escape from the teeth" of one's enemies is to avoid their malice (Psa. 124:6; Zech. 9:7). Oppression is compared to "jaw teeth like swords and grinders like knives" (Prov. 30: 14). Beautiful teeth are compared (Cant. 4:2; 6:6) to sheep newly shorn and washed; but the remaining part of the comparison, "whereof every one bear twins and there is not one barren among them," is much better rendered by Le Clerc, "all of them twins, and none hath lost his fellow." "To break the teeth with gravel stones." forcible figure is in "He hath also broken my teeth with gravel stones" (Lam. 3:16; comp. Prov. 20:17), referring to the grit that often mixes with bread baked in ashes, as is the custom in the East, and figurative of harsh disappointment. "Iron teeth" (Dan. 7:1, 19) are the symbol of destructive power. Hypocritical and greedy prophets are rep- TORCH. The Heb. 7 (lap-peed', Zech. 12: resented as those who "bite with their teeth and 6), and the Gr. λaμñáç (lam-pas', John 18:3), usucry, Peace" (Mic. 3:5). "I will take away his blood out of his mouth, and his abominations from ally signify, and are translated, a lamp. In Nah. between his teeth" (Zech. 9:7), refers to idolaters 2:3 "torch" stands for Heb. (pel-aw-daw', keeping a feast, which is interrupted by Jehovah, steel); “the chariots shall be with flaming torches,” and idolatry abolished. "Cleanness of teeth i. e., with polished scythes or armature. (Amos 4:6) is the figure of hunger, famine. cast in the teeth" is an old English phrase, for the Hebrew has no such idiom, signifying to reproach. The Greek is vɛidišov avτóv (ōn-i' -did zon ow-ton'), “they upbraided him" (Matt. 27:44). The action of acid is referred to in Ezek. 18:2; comp. 10:26.

TOPAZ. See MINERAL KINGDOM.

A very

"

"To

2. Location, etc. Tophet lay somewhere east or southeast of Jerusalem, for Jeremiah went out by the Sun Gate, or east gate, to go to it (Jer. 19:2). It was in "the Valley of the Son of Hin(7:31), which is "by the entry of the east gate" (19:2). Thus it was not identical with HinIt was in Hinnom and was, perhaps, one of nom. its chief groves or gardens. It seems also to have been part of the king's gardens, and watered by Siloam, perhaps a little to the south of the present Birket el-Hamra. The name Tophet occurs only in the Old Testament (2 Kings 23:10, "Topheth;" Isa.30:33; Jer. 7:31, 32; 19:6, 11-14). The New Testament does not refer to it, nor the Apocrypha. In Tophet the deity (Baal, Jer. 19:5; Moloch, 32:35) was worshiped by sacrifices in heathen fash ion, first by the ancient Canaanites, and afterward by apostate Israelites (comp. Psa. 106:38; Jer. 7: 31). This was done first by Ahaz (2 Kings 16:31, then especially by Manasseh (21:6). came the place of abomination, the very gate or pit of hell. The pious kings defiled it (23:10), and threw down its altars and high places, pouring into it all the filth of the city, till it became the of Jerusalem. Every vestige of Tophet, name and grove, is gone, and we can only guess at the spot.

"abhorrence

Thus it be

Figurative. A flaming torch is used by the prophet (Zech. 12:6) as a symbol of great anger and destruction.

TOR'MAH (Heb., tor-maw', deceit) occurs only in the margin of Judg. 9:31. By a few commentators it has been conjectured that the word was originally the same with Arumah (v. 41). The Septuagint and Chaldee take the word as an

appellative Ev Kovoy, secretly; so also do Rashi

TOʻPHEL (Heb. b, to'-fel, lime, mortar), apparently a boundary of the great Sinaitic desert and most of the earlier commentators, while R. of Paran (Deut. 1:1). It is supposed by Heng- Kimchi, the elder, has decided in favor of the stenberg and Robinson, and all the more modern | second rendering as a proper name. As the word

poses. Besides these military structures, we read in Scripture of towers built in vineyards as an almost necessary appendage to them (Isa. 5:2; Matt. 21:33; Mark 12:1). Such towers are still in use in Palestine in vineyards, especially near Hebron,

declares to be identical with the Hebrew bekhon,' | and are used as lodges for the keepers of the and to mean an 'outlook,' 'a tower built on a hill.' vineyards. It applies, he says, to 'any building from which one can look far out into the land, and which itself is visible afar; thence any house standing high; a tower.'... In any event it is a word which is used in the Hebrew interchangeably with mig-dole, for a watchtower" (Trumbull, Kadesh-Barnea, p. 368).

or Mig-dawl' (7), 3. Mig-dole' (Heb.), is from a root meaning "to become great." See MIGDOL.

4. Pin-noth' (Heb. ), the corners and battlements of the walls of the fortifications (Zeph. 1:16; 3:6; comp. 2 Chron. 26:15).

5. O'-fel (Heb., hill, 2 Kings 5:24). See

6. Maw-tsore' (Heb. 7), a fortress, only in

7. Mits-peh' (Heb.). See MIZPEH.

8. Poor'-gos (Gr. Túруoç), a tower, a fortified structure rising to a considerable height, to repel a hostile attack, or to enable a watchman to see in every direction. The "tower of Siloam" seems to designate a tower in the walls of Jerusalem, near the fountain of Siloam (Luke 13:4). Watchtowers or fortified posts in frontier or exposed situations are mentioned in Scripture, as the tower of Edar, etc. (Gen. 35:21; Mic. 4:8; Isa. 21:5, 8, 11, etc.), the tower of Lebanon (Cant. 7:4). Remains of such fortifications may still be seen, which probably have succeeded to more ancient structures built in the same places for like pur

towns, one would come to a low wall that protected (Acts 19:35). The speech delivered by him may a ditch. Crossing this moat, one would be at the be analyzed thus: He argues that such excitement city wall proper, and enter through a massive gate, as the Ephesians evinced was undignified, inas often covered with iron, and secured by strong much as they stood above all suspicion in religious bars and bolts. Above the gate rose the watch- matters (vers. 35, 36); that it is unjustifiable, tower. Within the gate' was the shady or shel- since they could establish nothing against the mer. tered retreat where the elders' sat. The whom they accused (v. 37); that it was unneces gates opened upon large squares, on which the sary, since other means of redress were open to various streets converged. . . . These streets are them (vers. 38, 39); and, finally, if neither pride all named, mostly after the trades or guilds which nor a sense of justice availed anything, fear of the have there their bazaars. In these bazaars many Roman power should restrain them from such ilof the workmen sat outside their shops, and in the legal proceedings (v. 40) (Smith, Bib. Dict.). interval of labor exchanged greetings or banter with the passers-by. . . . The rule of these towns and villages was exceedingly strict. The representatives of Rome were chiefly either military men or else fiscal or political agents. Then every town had its Sanhedrin, consisting of twenty-three members if the place numbered at least one hundred and twenty men, or of three members if the population were smaller.... Of course all ecclesiastical and, so to speak, strictly Jewish causes, and all religious questions, were within their special cognizance. Lastly, there were also in every place what may be called municipal authorities, under the presidency of a mayor-the representative of the elders-an institution so frequently mentioned in Scripture, and deeply rooted in Jewish society. Perhaps these may be referred to (Luke 7:3) as sent by the centurion of Capernaum to intercede for him with the Lord.

"What may be called the police and sanitary regulations were of the strictest character. Of Cæsarea, e. g., we know that there was a regular system of drainage into the sea, apparently similar to, but more perfect than that of any modern town (Josephus, Ant., xv, 9, 6). The same holds true with regard to the temple buildings at Jerusalem. But in every town and village sanitary rules were strictly attended to. Cemeteries, tanneries, and whatever also might be prejudicial to health, had to be removed at least fifty cubits outside a town. Bakers' and dyers' shops, or stables, were not allowed under the dwelling of another person. Again, in building, the line of each street had to be strictly kept, nor was even a projection beyond it allowed. In general the streets were wider than those of modern Eastern cities. The nature of the soil, and the circumstance that so many towns were built on hills (at least in Judea), would, of course, be advantageous in a sanitary point of view. It would also render the paving of the streets less requisite. But we know that certain towns were paved-Jerusalem with white stones (Josephus, Ant., xx, 9, 7). To obviate occasions of dispute, neighbors were not allowed to have windows looking into the courts or rooms of others, not might the principal entrance to a shop be through a court common to two or three dwellings (Edersheim, Sketches of Jewish Social Life, pp. 87-93).

TOWN CLERK (Gr. ypaμjareve, gram-matyooce'), the city secretary, recorder, to whose office belonged the superintendence of the archives, the drawing up of official decrees, and the reading of them in public assemblies of the people. This official appeased the mob in Ephesus, when Demetrius and his fellow-craftsmen raised a tumult

TRACHONI'TIS (Gr.Tpaxwvitiç, trakh-o-nee”tis, rough district, only in Luke 3:1). "Tracho nitis was the territory which contained the Trachot or Trachons. These are described by Strabo (xvi, 2, 20) as 'the two so-called Trachones' lying behind Damascus.' The name ... corresponds exactly to the two great stretches of lava, ‘the tempests in stone,' which lie to the southeast of Damascus-the Lejá and the Safá. Each of these is called by the Arabs a wa'ar, a word meaning rough, stony tract, and thus equivalent to Trachon. The latter, beyond the reach of civilization, was little regarded, and the Lejá became known as the Trachon par excellence, as is proved by the two inscriptions at either end of it-in Musmireh, the ancient Phænä, and the Bereke, each of which is called a chief town of the Trachon. . . . Now the Trachonitis was obviously the Trachon plus some territory round it. In the north it extended westward from the borders of the Lejá to the districts of Ulatha and Paneas in the northern Jaulan; and in the south it bordered with Batanea, but also touched Mons Alsadamus, the present Jebel Hau

ran. Philo uses the name Trachonitis for the

whole territory of Philip" (Smith, Hist. Geog., p.

543).

to define is the Ituræan; and it is uncertain whether The portion of Philip's tetrarchy most difficult it covered or overlapped Trachonitis. Luke's reference is ambiguous, and we have no modern echo of the name to guide us.

TRADE. 1. In the sense of occupation, as when Joseph told Pharaoh, "The men are shepherds, for their trade hath been to feed sheep" (Heb. ", an-shay' mik-neh', men of cattle, Gen. 46:32, 34). "Trading" (Luke 19:15) is the rendering of the Greek díaлpaɣμarɛvoμat (deep-rag-mat-yoo'-om-ahee), to undertake a business earnestly, for the sake of gain.

2. In the sense of traffic, commerce: Naw-thanʼ (Heb. 77, to give, i. e., to pay), something as an equivalent for the sale (Ezek. 27:12-14); Sawkhar (, to go about, travel), to traverse the country as a merchant, to trade, traffic (Gen. 34:10); Gr. Épyáčoμai (er-gad′-zom-ahee), to work, to make do business" (Matt. 25:16), gains by trading, our and especially as seamen (Rev. 18:17).

Traffic is the rendering of Heb. 22 (kenah'-an, literally Canaan). The expression, “land of traffic" (Ezek. 17:4), should read "a land of Canaan" (comp. 16:29); the sentence will then read, "He plucked off the top of his young twigs, and carried it into a land of Canaan," an epithet

TRADITION

applied to Babylonia as being a land whose trading spirit had turned it into a Canaan. In Gen. 42:34 "traffic" is the rendering of saw-khar′ (see 2), while in 1 Kings 10:15 the Hebrew is miskhawr(), from the same root, signifying to travel about for the purpose of trade. Similar in meaning is the Heb. 7, rek-ool-law' (Ezek. 28:5, 18). "Traffickers" (Isa. 23:8) is from the Hebrew signifying Canaanite.

TRADITION (Gr. πapádocię, par-ad-os-is, a giving over), a giving over either by word of mouth or in writing; objectively, what is delivered, as Paul's teaching (2 Thess. 3:6; comp. 2:15; 1 Cor. 11:2, A. V. "ordinances "). It is also used of the body of precepts, especially ritual, which, in the opinion of the later Jews, were orally delivered by Moses, and orally transmitted in unbroken succession to subsequent generations, which precepts, both illustrating and expanding the written law, as they did, were to be obeyed with equal reverence (Matt. 15:2, sq.; Mark 7:3; 5, 9, 13; Col. 2:8). "The traditions of my fathers" (παTрikai парadboɛvç, Gal. 1:14) are precepts received from the fathers, whether handed down in the Old Testament books or orally. Meyer, in his Com. on Matt. 15:2, says: "The Jews, founding upon Deut. 4:14; 17:10, for the most part attached greater importance to this tradition than to the written law. They laid special stress upon the traditional precept, founded on Lev. 15:11, which required that the hands should be washed before every meal. Jesus and his disciples ignored this tradition as such, which had been handed down

from the men of olden time."

TRAFFICKER. See GLOSSARY.

TRAIN. 1. Khah'-yil (Heb., strength), the term used respecting the queen of Sheba; "she came to Jerusalem with a very great train" (1 Kings 10:2), i. e., a retinue of men, and camels laden with riches.

2. "Train up a child," etc. (Prov. 22:6), has the sense in Hebrew (27, khaw-nak′) of “to imbue one with anything," to initiate; and so to train up a child according to his way, according to his disposition and habits.

3. Isaiah (6:1) says that the Lord's train (Heb. b, shool) filled the temple. "The heavenly temple is that superterrestrial place, which Jehovah transforms into heaven and a temple, by manifesting himself there to angels and saints. But while he manifests his glory there he is obliged also to veil it, because created beings are unable to bear it. But that which veils his glory is no less splendid than that portion of it which is revealed. And this was the truth embodied for Isaiah in the long robe and train. He saw the Lord, and what more he saw was the all-filling robe of the indescribable One" (Delitzsch, Com., in loc.).

TRANSFIGURATION

stas-is). The word is thus defined by Grimm, “A throwing of the mind out of its normal state, whether such as makes a lunatic, or that of the man who by some sudden emotion is transported out of himself, so that in this rapt condition, although he is awake, his mind is so drawn off from all surrounding objects and wholly fixed on things divine that he sees nothing but the forms and images lying within, and thinks that he perceives with his bodily eyes and ears realities shown him by God."

66

TRANSFIGURATION (Gr. μεταμορφόω, met-am-or-fo'-o, to change into another form). It is recorded (Matt. 17:2; Mark 9:2) that our Lord was transfigured" before his disciples, Peter, James, and John; and this is explained (Luke 9: 29), And as he prayed, the fashion of his countenance was altered, and his raiment was white and glistering." Each of the evangelists represent it as taking place about eight days after the first distinct intimation our Lord made to them of tion. The location is merely given as a high his approaching sufferings, death, and resurrecmountain, which is traditionally thought to have been Mount Tabor; but as Jesus was at this time sojourning in the neighborhood of Cæsarea Philippi, it seems likely that it was one of the ridges of Hermon. While our Lord was praying he was "transfigured," i. e., his external aspect was changed, his face gleaming like the sun, and his raiment being so white that it shone like light. The cause of this appearance was that his divine glory shone out through his human form, and not, as in the case of Moses, caused by God having appeared to him.

The disciples seem to have been in a slumber when this divine radiance began to shine forth; but when they woke up they were filled with wonder and fear, beholding also two men, Moses and Elias, in glory, conversing with him. Peter, recovering himself, in the rapture of the moment, suggested that three tents should be pitched to secure the continued presence and fellowship of such glorious company. He had scarcely given expression to his thought when a bright cloud overshadowed them, out of which came a voice, saying, "This is my beloved Son, hear ye him." The theme of conversation is not given by Matthew or Mark, but Luke records that they spake concerning his death.

The lessons of the transfiguration are thus summed up by Kitto: (1) To teach that, in spite of the calumnies which the Pharisees had heaped on Jesus, the old and new dispensations are in harmony with each other. To this end the author and restorer of the old dispensation talk with the founder of the new, as if his scheme, even the most repulsive feature of it, was contemplated by theirs, as the reality of which they had promul gated only types and shadows. (2) To teach that the new dispensation was superior to the old, Moses and Elias appear as inferior to Jesus, not merely since their faces did not, as far as we know, shine like the sun, but chiefly because the voice from the excellent glory commanded to hear him in preference to them. (3) To gird up the energies of Jesus for the great agony which was so soon to excruciate him. (4) To comfort the 1121

TRANCE. 1. In the only passage (Num. 24:4, 16) in which this word occurs in the English of the Old Testament, there is, as the Italics show, no corresponding word in Hebrew.

2. In the New Testament the word occurs three times (Acts 10:10; 11:5; 22:17, Gr. Ekotaois, ck'(72)