PHOENICIA that a picked band of Phoenician sailors circum-peace under Tigranes of Armenia till 69, when it navigated Africa about B. C. 600, sailing out by became part of the Roman empire. the Red Sea and returning through the Mediterranean after nearly three years. For fuller accounts of this wonderful voyage we must refer to Hd. 4, 42; Gr., iii, 283-289; R., 175–180. About B. C. 570 the Phoenician coast came under the power of Apries (Pharaoh-Hophra, Jer. 44:30). This was followed by Nebuchadnezzar's invasion of Egypt, which brought peace to western Asia for thirty years. (d) ROMAN PERIOD, from B: C. 69 to the conquest by Omar, A. D. 638. The Romans made Tyre, Sidon, and Tripolis free cities; and if Augustus abridged their liberties in B. C. 20 in consequence of their following Anthony it must have been either temporarily or to a very limited extent, for in history, both sacred (Acts 12:20-23) and profane (Strabo), we find them retaining a kind of semi-independence. Agrippa would hardly have ventured to quarrel with fully Roman towns, nor would they have been likely to send embassies on their own account (R., 243). (b) PERSIAN PERIOD to the conquest of Persia by Alexander, B. C. 332. With the capture of Babylon by Cyrus, B. C. 538, Phoenicia became part of the Persian empire. The relations of Phoenicia received the Gospel in the dispersion Phoenicia to Persia were, on the whole, pleasant. which followed the death of Stephen (Acts 11:19), The fidelity of Phoenicia insured to Persia the A. D. 41, and St. Paul, in his third missionary possession of Cyprus, and the great king must journey, found a church large enough to detain depend on Phoenician ships for his naval battles, him a week (21:3–6), A. D. 58, according to Cony. to say nothing of his obligations to Phoenician beare and Howson. Christianity and heathenism trade by land and sea. Thus the Phoenicians lived side by side for three centuries, but Chriswere strong enough in Persian favor to beg off tianity continually gained, and by the end of the from fighting against their children, the Cartha-2d century, A. D., Tyre had a bishop of its own, ginians, even at the request of so willful a monarch as Cambyses. "Persia owed to her Phoenician ally the glory of recovering complete possession of Asia Minor, and of being accepted as a final arbiter in the internal quarrels of the Greeks" (R., 205). After the independence of Egypt, B. C. about 406, Phoenicia sided with Evagoras (B. C. about 390-380), took part in the general revolt of the West ("War of the Satraps," B. C. 362), and revolted, in alliance with Egypt (B. C. 352). Sidon was destroyed through the treachery of its king; but during the eighteen years of peace (351-333) which closed the Persian dominion it was rebuilt, and became flourishing. who took a prominent part in the discussions then prevalent. The Arian leaning of the council of Tyre (A. D. 339), rather lowered Tyre in general esteem. An A little before the introduction of Christianity a remarkable development of learning began in Phoenicia. (Strabo B. C. about 40 to A. D. 18) studied Aristotle with Boëthus, one of a school of philosophers at Sidon. Antipater of Sidon, the poet, lived about B. C. 108-100 (S. B. M., i, 203). tipater of Tyre, a stoic philosopher, was "intimate with the younger Cato, and known by reputation, at any rate, to Cicero." It was perhaps another stoic of the same name who died shortly before B. C. 45. Still another Tyrian stoic, Apollonius, (e) HELLENIC PERIOD to the Roman conquest lived in the time of Ptolemy Auletes, B. C. about 63. (B. C. 332-69), Phoenicia being, however, under "Toward the close of the 1st century Byblus Tigranes of Armenia (83-69). The details of Alex-began to rival Tyre and Sidon," producing Philo ander's memorable siege and capture of insular Tyre (January to July, 332), belong rather to the special history of Tyre, or the biography of Alexander. The siege left the city "half burned, half About the time of Hermippus lived Marinus, ruined, and almost wholly without inhabitants; "the first really scientific geographer," who, avail"but the advantages of the site, and the energy ing himself of the labors of Phoenicians, Greeks, of the people, who flocked back to it after the and Romans, substituted maps made according to death of Alexander, raised it again, with no long|latitude and longitude for itinerary charts, and space, to the position of a wealthy and flourishing community" (R., 236). Byblius, the well-known translator (or author) of the Phoenician history of Sanchoniatho, also Philo's pupil, the critic and grammarian, Hermippus. laid the foundation on which Ptolemy of Pelusium based his "great geographical work." About the same time lived Paulus, the rhetorician, whose oration won for Tyre from Hadrian the title and dignity of " Metropolis." Tyre recovered in about eighteen years and resumed the headship of Phoenicia; but, having lost its insular position, it became the prey of contending armies, especially those of Syria and Egypt, Origen went to live at Tyre A. D. about 250; and till B. C. 198, when the preponderance of Syria then, or earlier, he had for a hearer the celebrated was established, and Phoenicia came finally under neoplatonist and opponent of Christianity, Porthe Seleucids. These were liberal masters, who phyry, whose treatise against Christianity, though allowed the Phoenician cities to coin money, and answered by the bishop of Tyre, yet had consometimes honored the capital with their presence. siderable effect among the educated. Porphyry But Phoenicia was merged in Syria, and its trade closes the list of Phoenician writers, for "William was somewhat impaired by the rivalry of Alex-of Tyre (A. D. 1167-1188), was a native of Jeruandria (see Acts 27:6; 28:11) and Rhodes. More-salem." "From the latter part of the 3d cenover, it was overflowed with Greek influence and tury the literary activity of Phoenicia declines, language. The higher classes affected Greek except that Berytus continued eminent for two names; the Syrophœnician woman of Mark 7:26 is centuries longer as a school of Roman law and also called a Greek ('Eλλŋviç). After the end of jurisprudence" (R., 248). Indeed, with the exthe Seleucid kingdom, in 83, Phoenicia was at ception of Marinus of Tyre and Philo Byblius, all PHOENICIA the literary men enumerated were "Greeks in feeling, perhaps generally Greeks in blood, whom accident had caused to be born in cities that were once Phoenician" (id., ib.). (e) SUBSEQUENT PERIODS since A. D. 638. The political existence of Phoenicia ceased under the Romans; but its manufactures and commerce continued. Tyre flourished under the caliphs, A. D. 638-1124. Notwithstanding the violence of the crusaders, it retained some prosperity through the Christian period, 1124-1291. Indeed, its real fall may be traced to the discovery of the route by the Cape of Good Hope and its capture by the Turks, as already stated. See further under CoмMERCE AND MANUFACTURES, near the end of this article. deity. Their ships bore images of gods as their figureheads" (comp. Acts 28:11 and Smith's Dict. of Gr. and Rom. Ant., s. v. “insigne "). "Wherever they went they carried with them their religion and worship, and were careful to erect in each colony a temple, or temples," similar, apparently, to those which adorned the cities of the mother country (R., 28, 29). 6. Religion. But, unfortunately, their gods were worse than their people. Their religion seems like a degenerate system, a polytheism formed out of monotheism by making gods out of the names and attributes of God. the people was probably injurious rather than beneficial" (R., 37). "The Phoenicians had but small expectation of a future life" (id., 38). "The Phoenician religion rather excited the passions than restrained them, rather blunted the moral sentiments than gave them force or vigor. 5. Characteristics. First, flexibility and tact, Fear of divine vengeance may have exercised a as shown by their success in colonization and in certain deterrent influence, and held men back ingratiating themselves with such a multitude of from some forms of sin; but the aggregate renations, civilized and uncivilized. The jealoussults of the religion upon the moral character of Egyptians not merely traded with them, but they allowed them a settlement in their capital and a temple for their worship, and even admitted Phoenician gods into the Egyptian pantheon. He- These are very moderate expressions (see Lev. brews, Assyrians, Babylonians, and Persians made 18:20-25). But in every nation there are many them welcome and gave them special privileges. humble individuals who are better than their Even the alien Greeks "accepted from them let-leaders and better than their systems, and many ters and weights, welcomed them to their ports, and though to a considerable extent their rivals in trade, were never weary of singing their praises" (R., 26, 27). But with all their flexibility they had immense "depth and force" of character. "The thousand years of Phoenician greatness, the dangers which they confronted, and the vicissitudes through which they passed unharmed, may . . . be adduced | as indications, at any rate, of a tough fiber and a vital energy not the heritage of many races" (id., 27). And we may well add to this evidence the earlier thousand years in which they grew great and the later eighteen centuries in which they maintained themselves so well through so many national upheavals. who, under the forms of heathenism, reach out after an unknown God, and, like the widow of Zarephath (1 Kings 17:8-24; comp. Luke 4:26), are ready to recognize him when he is revealed. Besides, history and prophecy are more apt to dwell upon the strange, the striking, the blameworthy than upon that which is ordinary and commendable. If one were to judge of our American character from the records of crime and folly in our newspapers, and from some warning sermons, he would do no great injustice. Originally the Phoenicians seem to have had a lofty conception of a great power, distinct from matter, Creator and Ruler, who "brought into existence all other beings, and all material things" (R., 29). They called him El, 'great'" (or That they combined a "capacity for the hardest" strong," derivation uncertain); "Ram, or Rimwork" with a "love of dreamy ease " is shown by the unwearied activity of the nation throughout its whole career in shipbuilding, in manufactures, in mining, in colonization, and in commerce. No people of antiquity passed habitually more laborious days than did the great bulk of the Phonician nation; perhaps none more enjoyed the delights of rest from toil and indulgence in comfortable ease when the active business of life was accomplished (id., ib.). In abstract thought they were poor. "They were too busy, too much occupied with the affairs of practical life, to give much attention to speculation or abstract reasoning" (id., 28). Especially they were religious. "The temple was the center of attraction in each city, and the piety of the inhabitants adorned each temple with abundant and costly offerings. The kings were zealous in maintaining the honor of the gods, repaired and beautified the sacred buildings, and not unfrequently discharged the duties of the high priest. Both they and their subjects bore, for the most part, religious names-names which were regarded as placing them under the protection of mon, high;' Eliun, supreme; Adonai, 'my Among secondary deities were: (1) El, or Il, (2) Melkarth, perhaps originally Baal as god of cities, the special guardian of Tyre, identified with Heracles (Hercules) by both Greeks and Phoenicians. He often appears upon the later Phœnician coins. (3) Dagon, usually thought to have had, in whole or in part, the form of a fish. He was adored also by the PHILISTINES (q. v.) in Ashdod (1 Sam. 5:2–7) and perhaps Gaza (Judg. 16:21-25, etc.), and may have been adopted from them into the Phoenician pantheon. (4) Hadad, Adad, Adod, a Syrian god (comp. PHOENICIA the name Benhadad, 1 Kings 15:18, etc.); later ones, which alone have the sanction of civilization apparently used as a name of the sun. (5) Adonis, so well known in Greek mythology. His death is held to represent the departure of the sun in winter. The river Adonis, when swollen and discolored by the autumn rains, was said to be reddened with his blood; "and the Phoenician maidens flocked yearly to the banks of the stream to weep and beat their breasts for his loss" (R., 35). But the name was originally Adonai (7), "my lord," perhaps a name of Baal. (6) "Sadyk, the Just One" (P), “appears to have been an embodiment of the divine attribute of justice" (id., ib.). His sons were Eshmun (~72, the eighth), and the Kabeiri, or Cabiri , great, mighty; Isa. 17:12, 73, "mighty waters"), gods of shipbuilding, navigation, and metallurgy, who were dwarfed and misshapen, similar to Hephaistus (Vulcan). The Greeks identified Eshmun with Asclepias (Esculapius). (7) Atargatis (Derceto), more a Philistine than a Phoenician deity, was perhaps a native goddess akin to Ashtoreth. (8) Onca was compared by the Greeks to Athene (Minerva), the goddess of wisdom, "and to a certain extent adopted into their pantheon " (R., 35). 7. Manufactures and Commerce. "They were the first systematic traders, the first miners and metallurgists, the greatest inventors, the boldest mariners, the greatest colonizers; while elsewhere despotism overshadowed as with a pall the whole Eastern world they could boast of a government approaching to constitutionalism; of all the nations of their time they stood the highest in practical arts and science" (adapted from E. Deutsch, R., 38, 39). "They were masons, carpenters, shipbuilders, weavers, dyers, glassblowers, workers in metal, navigators, discoverers beyond all others; if they were not exactly the inventors of letters, at any rate, they so improved upon the mode of writing which they found in use that their system has been adopted, and suffices, with a few additions, for the whole civilized world; they were the first to affront the dangers of the open ocean in the strong-built ships, the first to steer by the polar star, the first to make known to civilized nations the remoter regions of Asia, Africa, and Europe; they surpassed the Greeks in enterprise, in perseverance, and in industry; at a time when brute force was worshiped as the main source of power and only basis of national repute they succeeded in showing that as much fame might be won, as much glory obtained, as real a power constructed by arts as by arms, by the peaceful means of manufacture, trade, and commerce, as by the violent and bloody ones of war, massacre, and conquest. They set an example which has been followed in the past by Miletus, Corinth, Genoa, Venice, Portugal, Holland, and to some extent by England-an example which, it is to be hoped, will be far more largely followed in the future when the rage for military establishments is past, and the rivalry of nations is diverted from the warlike channels, in which it at present flows, to the more peaceful and Christianity " (R., 39). In accordance with the sentiment of that age they were slave dealers (Ezek. 27:13), and occasionally guilty of kidnapping; but "honest trade was their main purpose " (R., 82), as is shown by their universal welcome; and they were "notorious for the excellency of their manufactures (R., 86). The textile fabrics, the works in metallurgy, and the vases and other articles in glass which Phoenicia produced bore the highest possible character in the early ages, and were everywhere accepted as the ne plus ultra of perfection, combining as they did the best materials, the best workmanship, and the highest artistic taste and elegance" (R., 86). the so-called bronze age in Europe “does not, as The idea has been provisionally advanced that has been supposed, represent the irruption of a new race, supplanting the primitive savages of the stone age, but the era of Phoenician influence, and the first development of native art under this teaching" (L. and C., ii, 205). The wealth and prosperity of Phoenicia depended mainly upon her carrying trade; but'" her fame and reputation were chiefly sustained by the excellency of her productions, under these four heads " (R., 275)—the purple of Tyre, the glass of Sidon, textile fabrics for garments and furniture, and works in metal. For the purple Tyre was indebted to certain shellfish which abounded along her coast. Tyrian dyes were unequaled in antiquity; they were "celebrated by poets and affected by priests, senators, and emperors up to the date of Phoenicia's conquest by the Saracens," A. D. 633–638; and Tyrian purple was imported by the Venetians in the time of Charlemagne, A. Ď. 768-814 (R., 280, 281). The discovery of the purple was so ancient as to be attributed to Hercules (id., 281). Glass was known to the Egyptians of the third and fourth dynasties (variously estimated from B. C. about 4000 to about 2400); but the Sidonians excelled in its manufacture, and had proeesses all their own (L. and C., ii, 215; R., 283, 284). In the early ages they wove wool and linen, in the later frequently silk. Sidonian embroidery was famous of old, and always found a ready market. The skill of the Phoenicians in metal work is attested by Solomon's employment of a Tyrian artist for the work on the temple (1 Kings 7:13, 14). The Bible story of the Phoenicians is mostly connected with the oppression of Israel by the SIDONIANS (q. v.) in Judg. 10:12 and other scattered allusions; the alliance with David and Solomon, and the marriage of Jezebel to Ahab, and the warnings against Tyre and Sidon in the prophets, especially Ezekiel. The long-continued prosperity of Phoenicia, so near their own borders, may help to explain the inveterate tendency of the Israelites to lapse into Baal worship. We have given the words of our authorities as far as space permitted, thinking that in so short a compend of a history extending so widely in space and time the reader would prefer the carefully PHRYGIA weighed words of well-known and trusted specialists. We compared the Philistines to the Northmen; we may liken the Phoenicians to the English.W. H. ABBREVIATIONS. PHYLACTERY not far from Egypt (Isa. 66:19, A. V. "Put;" Nah. 3:9; Jer. 46:9; Ezra 27:10; 30:5; 38:5). From these passages we cannot infer anything as to the exact position of this country or people; unless indeed in Nahum, Cush and Phut, Mizraim and Lubim, are respectively connected, which might L. and C.-Lenormant and Chevallier, Ancient indicate a position south of Egypt. Jeremiah History of the East. R.-Rawlinson, Story of Phoenicia. S. B. M.-Smith, Dict. of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. S. G.-Smith, Dict. of Greek and Roman Geography. L. and S.-Liddell and Scott, Greek-English Lexicon, seventh edition. Lb.-Labberton, New Historical Atlas and General History. Hd.-Herodotus. Gr.-Grote, History of Greece. T.-Dr. C. P. Tiele, Babylonisch-Assyrische Geschichte. PHRYGʻIA (Gr. Þpvyía, froog-eeʼ-ah, barren), a province of Asia Minor, inland. Once it seemed to include the greater part of the peninsula of Asia Minor, then it was divided into Phrygia Major and Minor, and the Romans again divided it into three parts, Phrygia Salutaris on the east, Phrygia Pacatiana on the west, and Phrygia Katakekaumene (the burnt) in the middle, for this part was volcanic. The country was fertile, and its rich pastures made it famous for its breeds of cattle. Paul crossed this province twice in the course of his missionary journeys. It is the Greater Phrygia that is referred to in the New Testament. The town of Antioch in Pisidia (Acts 13:14), Colosse, Hierapolis, Iconium, and Laodicea were situated in it. In the passages (16:6; 18:23) Phrygia is mentioned in a manner not intended to be precise, the former referring to Paul's second missionary journey, and the latter to the third. Nor is Acts 2:10 inconsistent with this view. By Phrygia we must understand an extensive district, which contributed portions to several Roman provinces, and varying portions at different times. PHU'RAH (Heb., poo-raw', bough), the servant of Gideon, who went with him by night 4 Deut. 11:13-22. (46:9) describes the Egyptian army as consisting of Ethiopians, of Phutites, and of Lydians; and Ezekiel (30:5) prophesies that Cush and Phut and Lud shall fall by the sword along with the EgypThe geographical position of Phut has not been cleared up (Smith, Bib. Dict.; Sayce, Higher Crit., pp. 135-137). tians. PHU'VAH (Heb. E, poov-vaw', blast), one of the sons of Issachar (Gen. 46:13). The name is given as "Pua" (Num. 26:23) and "Puah" (1 Chron. 7:1). His descendants were called Punites (Num. 26:23). PHYGEL'LUS (Gr. Þúyɛλλoç, foogʻ-el-los, a fugitive) (2 Tim. 1:15), a Christian connected with those in Asia of whom St. Paul speaks as turned away from himself. It is open to question whether their repudiation of the apostle was joined with a declension from the faith, and whether the open display of the feeling of Asia took place—at least so far as Phygellus and Hermogenes were concerned-at Rome. Phygellus may have forsaken (see 2 Tim. 4:16) the apostle at some critical time when his support was expected; or he may have been a leader of some party of nominal Christians at Rome, such as the apostle describes at an earlier period (Phil. 1:15, 16) opposing him there (Smith, Bib. Dict., s. v.). PHYLACTERY. 1. Name. (Gr. pvλakripov, foo-lak-tayʻ-ree-on, a station for a guard.) The name "phylactery" seems to be confined to the New Testament. Neither the Septuagint nor the other Greek versions have this term in their translations of the passages which enjoin this token. Even Josephus does not use the word "phylactery," though he mentions the custom. The Jews in Christ's time, and to this day, call phy. lacteries tep-ee-leen' (Heb. 7, prayer fillets). 2. Form and Use. Phylacteries were strips of parchment with four passages of Scripture written upon them in the following order: when he visited the camp of the Midianites (Judg. 7:10, 11). 1 Exod. 13:1-10. | Each strip was rolled up, tied with the white hairs of a calf's or a cow's tail, and placed in one of the PHUT, PUT (Heb. E, poot), the third name compartments of a small box. During prayer in the list of the sons of Ham (Gen. 10:6; 1 Chron. these phylacteries were worn by the male Israel1:8), elsewhere applied to an African country or ites firmly attached with leathern straps to the people. In the list it follows Cush and Mizraim, forehead between the eyebrows, and on the left and precedes Canaan. We cannot place the tract arm, so as to be near the heart. This practiceof Phut out of Africa, and it would thus seem regarding the origin of which only this much is that it was almost parallel to that of the Mizra- certain, that it was in existence in our Lord's time ites, as it could not be farther to the north; this (Matt. 23:5; Josephus, Ant., iv, 8, 13)—is foundposition would well agree with Libya. The few ed upon a literal interpretation of Exod. 18:9, mentions of Phut in the Bible clearly indicate a 16, where, with reference to the enactments as country or people of Africa, and it was, probably, to the observance of the passover and the sanc ments. arm Phylactery on the Arm. Of course, the injunction was intended to be taken figuratively. The box for the head phylactery and for the were ordinarily one and one half inches square; the former having on the outside to the right the three-pronged letter shin (Heb. ), which is designed as an abbreviation of the divine name Shadai, "the Almighty," while on the left side it had a four-pronged shin, the two constituting the sacred number seven. 3. How Worn. Through a flap in the box a very long leathern strap is passed. Before commencing his morning prayers the Israelite puts on first the phylactery for the arm. The strap, passed through the loop, makes a noose for the Having put his naked arm through this in such a way that when it is bent it may touch the arm. Phylactery on Forehead. PICTURE ing two shins, one with three prongs and the other with four. He next puts on the head phylactery, placing it exactly in the center between the eyes so as to touch the spot where the hair begins to grow (Deut. 11:18), and pronounces the following benediction before he finally secures it: "Blessed art thou, O Lord our God, King of the universe, who hast sanctified us with thy commandments, and enjoined upon us the command about phylacteries.” "To make broad their phylacteries " (Matt. 23: 5) was to make the strips wider, requiring a larger box, thus making them more conspicuous. Some believe that this means having wider straps. "It is now generally admitted that the real meaning of phylacteries is equivalent to amulets or charms. And as such the Rabbinists really regarded and treated them, however much they might otherwise have disclaimed all connection with heathen views." PHYSICIAN. "Physician, heal thyself" (Luke 4:23), seems to mean that Jesus had been describing the various ills from which his hearers suffered and had applied the words of Isaiah to himself as the restorer of humanity. Jesus then added the proverb thus: "You are going even to turn into ridicule what you have just heard, and to say to me. Thou who pretendest to save humanity from its misery, begin by delivering thyself from thine own," viz., the want of esteem and consideration which attached to him. "They that are whole need not a physician," etc. (5:31), was quoted to the scribes and Pharisees who objected to Jesus eating with Levi. So far as this concedes to the Pharisees that they were perfectly well, and therefore for them he, as a physician, was useless-so far it is irony. On the other hand it was calculated to excite serious doubts in their minds as to whether their point of view was correct (Godet, Com., in loc.). See DISEASES, TREATMENT OF. PI-BE'SETH (Heb. 9, pee-beh ́-seth ; Gr. Bovßaorós, Sept.; the Egyptian Pi-Pasht, i. e., the place of Pasht) was "so-called from the catheaded Bubastis or Pasht, the Egyptian Diana, which was worshiped there in a splendid temple. It was situated on the royal canal leading to Suez, not far from its junction with the Pelusiac arm of the Nile. It was the chief seat of the Nomas Bubastites, was destroyed by the Persians, who demolished its walls (Diod. Sic., xvi, 51), and has entirely disappeared, with the exception of some ruins which still bear the name of Tel-Bastah (Keil, Com., on Ezek.). The prophet Ezekiel (30:17) declares that the young military men of Pi-beseth will fall by the sword, but the population of the city will go into exile. PICTURE, the rendering of two Hebrew words: flesh and be near the heart to fulfil the precept, "Ye shall lay up these my words in your hearts (Deut. 11:18), he twists the strap three times close 1. Mas-keeth' (Heb., figure), idolatrous to the box in the form of the letter shin, and pro- representations, either independent images, or nounces the following benediction: "Blessed art more usually stones sculptured in low relief, or thou, O Lord our God, King of the universe, who engraved and colored (Num. 33:52; comp. Ezek. hast sanctified us with the commandments and 23:14, "portrayed "). Pictures, movable as with enjoined us to put on phylacteries." He then us, were probably unknown to the Jews; but twists the strap seven times around the arm, form-colored sculpture and drawings on walls or wood, |