an escutcheon of pretence, in the centre of his achievement, instead of impaling, as in fig. 2.

The

Quartering (fig. 3), or the exhibiting different coats on a shield divided at once perpendicularly and horizontally, is the most common mode of marshalling arms, a practice which, however, was unknown till the middle of the 14th century. The divisions of the shield are called quarters, and are numbered horizontally, beginning at the dexter chief. most common object of quartering is to indicate descent. The coats quartered in an escutcheon must all have been brought in by successive heiresses, who have intermarried into the family. In the case of a single quartering, the paternal arms are placed in the first and fourth quarters, and the maternal in the second and third. The third and fourth quarters may, in after-generations, be occupied by the arms of a second and third heiress. Sometimes an already quartered coat is placed in one of the four quarters of the escutcheon, then termed a grand quarter. We occasionally find the shield divided by perpendicular and horizontal lines into six, nine, or even more parts, each occupied by a coat brought in by an heiress; and in case of an odd number of coats, the last division is filled by a repetition of the first. In the course of generations, a shield may thus be inconveniently crowded by the accumulation of coats, including the several coats to which each heiress may, in a similar way, have become entitled, and in Germany, sometimes twenty or thirty coats are found marshalled in one escutcheon; but in British heraldry, families entitled to a number of quarterings, generally select some of the most important. Quarterings, at least in Scotland, are not allowed to be added to the paternal coat without the sanction of the heraldic authorities.

Sovereigns quarter the ensigns of their several states, giving precedence to the most ancient, unless it be inferior to the others in importance. In the royal escutcheon of the United Kingdom, England is placed in the first and fourth quarters, Scotland in the second, and Ireland in the third; the relative positions of Scotland and England being, however, reversed on the official seals of Scotland. Spain bears the arms of Leon in the first and fourth quarters, and Castile in the second and third. An elected king generally places his arms surtout on an escutcheon of pretence.

MARSH'S TEST. See ARSENIC.

province of Potenza, 18 miles south of the town of MA'RSICO NUOVO, a town in the Italian Potenza, built on a height, and exposed to violent winds. Pop. 6355.

MARSILEA CEA, or RHIZOCARPEÆ, a natural order of Acotyledonous plants, nearly allied to Lycopodiacea, but differing in the want of a stem, and in the usually stalked leaves. The species are all inhabitants of ditches and pools, chiefly in temperate regions, and two of them occur in various parts of Great Britain. No species was known to be of any importance till the discovery of the Nardoo (q. v.) of Australia.

MARSUPIA'LIA, or MARSUPIATA, an extensive order or group of mammals, differing essentially from all others in their organisation, and especially in their generative system. The animals of this aberrant group originally received the name of Animalia Crumenata, or Purse-bearing Animals; and the names now employed have a similar signification, being derived from marsu pium, a pouch or bag. This marsupium, or pouch, which is situated on the abdomen of the female, contains the teats, and serves for the protection of the immature young; and is unquestionably the most marked characteristic of these animals. As the different genera of this order live upon various kinds of food-some being herbivorous, others insectivorous, and others, again, purely carnivorouswe find various modifications of their organs of progression, prehension, and digestion; but as the most important of these modifications are noticed in the articles on the principal genera, we shall confine ourselves to the characters common to the group.

The leading peculiarity presented by the skeleton is the presence of the marsupial bones (see MAMMALIA), which are attached to the pubis, and are imbedded in the abdominal muscles. Another constant but less striking peculiarity is a greater or less inversion of the angle of the lower jaw. The organs of digestion, including the teeth, vary extremely, according to the nature of the food; a complex stomach and a cæcum of considerable size being present in some, while others (the carnivorous genera) have a simple stomach and no cæcum. The brain is constructed on a simpler type than in the placental mammals. The size of the hemispheres (fig. 1, A) is so small that they leave exposed the olfactory ganglion (a), the cerebellum (C), and more or less of the optic lobes (B), and they are but partially connected together by the fornix' and 'anterior commissure,' the great cerebral commissure known as the

Fig. 1.

corpus callosum being absent. In accordance with this condition of the brain, these animals are all characterised by a low degree of intelligence, and are said (when in captivity) not to manifest any sign of recognition of their feeders. It is, however, in the organs of generation and mode of reproduction that these animals especially differ from all the ordinary mammals. Professor Owen, who has done more to elucidate this subject, and indeed the anatomy and physiology of marsupiata generally, than any other anatomist, observes that in all the genera of this

Brain of Opossum.

Pine M. skins are imported from the north of Europe, Siberia, and North America.-The martens generally have their retreats in the hollow trunks

other on holidays. To the other books, we are also indebted for much of our knowledge of the manners and customs which prevailed under the Emperors Nero, Galba, Otho, Vespasian, Titus, Domitian, Nerva, and Trajan, under whose collec tive reigns he spent 35 years of his life. His works have also a great literary value, as embodying the first specimens of what we now understand by epigram-not a mere inscription, but a poem of two or more lines, containing the terms of an antithesis, which goes off with a repercussion at the close. The wonderful inventiveness and facility displayed by M. in this species of composition have always received the highest admiration, only qualified by his disgusting grossness, which, blameworthy in him, was even more so in the age by which it was demanded and relished. The best edition of M. is that of Schneidewin. He has never found an adequate translator.

MARTIAL LAW is a collective name for those laws to which the individuals composing the military and naval forces of a country are subject, but which do not apply to civilians. As, however, the soldier remains a citizen, he is governed by the common law in all matters not coming under the cognizance of the martial law, the degree to which the latter is applicable to his actions varying in different countries, and in times of peace and war. In France and Austria, a soldier's offences against the civil code are dealt with by a court-martial; while among British troops-unless serving against an enemy-the civil tribunals deal with non-military

offences.

The maintenance of discipline and other obvious causes necessitate, for a body of armed men, a code of laws and regulations much more strict and severe

(Martes abietum).

of trees, or usurp the nest of a magpie or other bird, but sometimes among rocks. They are capable of a certain amount of domestication.

MARTHA'S VINEYARD, an island on the S. coast of Massachusetts, 21 m. long, 6 m. in average width. Edgartown, settled in 1642 by emigrants from Southampton, England, is the largest town. The island has lately been noted for annual camp-meetings attended by 20,000 persons. Pop. (1870) 3688. MARTIAL (MARCUS VALERIUS MARTIALIS), the first of epigrammatists, was born at Bilbilis, in Spain, 43 A.D. In 66, he came to Rome, where he resided till 100, when he returned to his native town. There he married a lady called Marcella, on whose property he lived till his death (about 104). When at Rome, he soon became famous as a wit and poet; received the patronage of the Emperors Titus and Domitian, and obtained from them the privileges of those who were fathers of three children, and, in addition, the rank of tribune, and the rights of the equestrian order. He lived, seemingly, in affluence, in a mansion in the city, and in Nomentum, a suburban villa, to both of which he makes frequent reference. From Rome, his reputation rapidly extended to the provinces; and even in Britain his Epigrammata, which, divided into 14 books, now form his extant works, were familiarly read. These books, which were arranged by himself for publication, were written in the following order: the first eleven (including the Liber de Spectaculis) were composed at Rome, with the exception of the third, which was written during a tour in Gallia Togata; the 12th was written at Bilbilis; and the 13th and 14th at Rome, under Domitian. The last two, entitled Xenia and Apophoreta, describe, in distichs, the various kinds of souvenirs presented by the Romans to each

execution, than suffices for ordinary society. Accordingly there have always been martial laws, more or less clearly defined, where there have been armies. For the nature of the rules under which the discipline of the British army is kept up, see ARTICLES OF WAR and MUTINY ACT.

There is yet another phase of martial law, and that is the degree of severity which may be applied to an enemy. All authorities agree that the life of an enemy taken in arms is forfeit to his captor; but modern ideas preclude his being put to death, unless in open resistance; and the massacre of prisoners in cold blood, once thought lightly of, is now esteemed a barbarity, which nothing but the most urgent circumstances, such as their uprising, or their attempted rescue by their countrymen, could justify. The slaughter of the captive Mamelukes at Jaffa has left an indelible stain on Napoleon's memory. As regards civil population and property, much amelioration has taken place with advancing civilisation. For merly, the devastation of the country, and the destruction, accompanied even by torture, of the inhabitants, was deemed a legitimate feature of war. Now, the rule is to spare private property, to respect personal liberty, unless the inhabitants directly or indirectly aid the enemy, and only to lay waste so much ground as military necessities may require. Such at least is the principle professed; but few commanders are able to prevent their troops from deeds of violence. A province occupied by a hostile army is usually considered under martial law.' This means that civil law is defunct, and all government under military regimen; but it is impossible to define the bounds of this martial law; nor is any more correct dictum on the subject likely to be arrived at than that celebrated saying of the Duke of Wellington when he described it as 'the will of the commander-in-chief.'

MARTIGNY, or MARTINACH (the Octodurus of the Romans), a small town of Switzerland, in the canton of Valais, is situated on the Drance, an affluent of the Rhone, about 24 miles south-southeast from the east end of the Lake of Geneva. The two noted routes, one to the vale of Chamouni by the Tête Noire or the Col de Balme, and another to the Great St Bernard, branch off here. M. is on the Simplon road into Italy. It is a great resort for tourists, and has a population of about 1200. MARTIGUES, a small town of France, in the department of Bouches du Rhone, is situated on three islands, united by bridges, in the entrance to the Etang de Berre, 16 miles north-west of Marseille. From the peculiarity of its position, it has been called the Provençal Venice. Pop. (1872) 5792, engaged in the tunny and pilchard fisheries. MARTIN. See SWALLOW.

MARTIN, Bishop of Tours, and a saint of the Roman Catholic Church, was born in Pannonia about the year 316. He was educated at Pavia, and at the desire of his father, who was a military tribune, entered the army, first under Constantine, and afterwards under Julian the Apostate. The virtues of his life as a soldier are the theme of more than one interesting legend. On obtaining his discharge from military service, M. became a disciple of Hilary, Bishop of Poitiers (q. v.). He returned to his native Pannonia, and converted his mother to Christianity, but he himself endured much persecution from the Arian party, who were at that time dominant; and in consequence of the firmness of his profession of orthodoxy, he is the first who, without suffering death for the truth, has been honoured in the Latin Church as a confessor of the faith. On his return to Gaul, about 360, he founded a convent of monks near Poitiers, where he himself led a life of great austerity and seclusion; but in 371 he was drawn by force from his retreat, and ordained Bishop of Tours. The fame of his sanctity, and his repute as a worker of miracles, attracted crowds of visit. ants from all parts of Gaul; and in order to avoid the distraction of their importunity, he established a monastery near Tours, in which he himself resided. His life by his contemporary, Sulpicius Severus, is a very curious specimen of the Christian literature of the age, and in the profusion of miraculous legends with which it abounds, might take its place among the lives of the medieval or modern Roman Church. The only extant literary relic of M. is a short Confession of Faith on the Holy Trinity, which is published by Galland, vol. vii. 559. In the Roman Catholic Church, the festival of his birth is celebrated on the 11th November. In Scotland, this day still marks the winter-term, which is called Martinmas (the mass of St Martin). Formerly, people used to begin St Martin's Day with feasting and drinking; hence the French expressions martiner and faire la St Martin, 'to feast.'

preceded him. He died at Perugia in 1285.-MARTIN V. must be noticed as the pontiff in whose election was finally extinguished the great WESTERN SCHISM (q. v.). He was originally named Otho Colonna, of the great Roman family of that name. On the deposition of John XXIII., and the two rival popes Gregory XII. and Benedict XIII., in the council of Constance, Cardinal Colonna was elected. He presided in all the subsequent sessions of the council, and the Fathers having separated without discuss. ing the questions of reform, at that period earnestly called for in the church, Martin undertook to call a new council for the purpose. The council was summoned accordingly, after several years, to meet at Siena, and ultimately assembled at Basel in 1431. Martin died in the same year.

MARTIN, JOHN, an English painter, was born in the neighbourhood of Hexham, Northumberland, 19th July 1789, went to London in 1806, and-after some years spent in obscure struggles-made his first appearance as an exhibiter at the Royal Academy in 1812. His picture was entitled 'Sadak in Search of the Waters of Oblivion,' and attracted much notice. It was followed within two years by the Expulsion from Paradise,'Clytée,' and 'Joshua commanding the Sun to stand Still.' The last of these works was a great success in point of popu. larity, but it was also the cause of a quarrel between M. and the Academy, in consequence of which he never obtained any distinction from the society. From this period till nearly the close of his life, he incessantly painted pictures in a style which was considered sublime,' by the same sort of people who thought Montgomery's Satan and Pollok's Course of Time equal to Paradise Lost. The prin cipal of these 'sublime' productions are 'Belshazzar's Feast' (1821); 'Creation' (1824); The Deluge' (1826); The Fall of Nineveh' (1828); 'Pandemonium' (1841); Morning' and 'Evening' (1844); The Last Man' (1850). M. died at Douglas, Isle of Man, February 9, 1854.

MARTIN, ST, one of the Lesser Antilles, lies in 18° 4′ N. lat., and 63° 8' W. long. The northern part belongs to France, and the southern to the Netherlands. It is indented with bays, mountainous in the interior, and about four square leagues in area. Much salt is made. Sugar-cane, cotton, tobacco, maize, plantains, bananas, and other W. Indian products are cultivated. In 1874, the salt exported from the Netherlands part amounted to 246,222 vats; and 465 vessels touched, measuring 31,472 tons. Jan. 1, 1875, pop. of the Netherlands colony, 2959. During 1874 there were 97 births (76 being illegitimate) and 72 deaths. Pop. of the French portion about 3500. The Dutch stock consists of horses, asses, mules, cattle, sheep, goats, and swine. The emancipation law came into force in July 1863.

MARTI'NA, a fine town of the Italian province of Lecce, situated on a hill 18 miles north-north

Panfili.

MARTINEAU, HARRIET, an English authoress, was born at Norwich 12th June 1802. Her educa tion was conducted for the most part at home; from an early age she was a lover of books, and was wont to amuse her solitary hours by committing her thoughts to paper. The deafness which she suffered from her youth no doubt strengthened her habits of study, and had much to do with the working out of her career. She appeared in print (in a religious periodical, the Monthly Repository) before she was out of her teens, and when, in 1829, she and her