MOSCOW-MOSELLE.

the Russian Church. The public museum and
library, which was removed from St Petersburg in
1861, occupies a large and handsome building,
formerly a palace, is rich especially in ancient
Slavonic MSS., and has about 200,000 vols.
M. communicates by railway with St Petersburg,
Nijni-Novgorod, Koslov, &c. It is the seat of an
extensive manufacturing and commercial industry;
it imports largely, and carries on a considerable ex-
port trade, especially with Asia. Its trade is chiefly
in hides, leather, oils, wool, grease, isinglass, wax,
honey, feathers and down, potass, soap, iron, and cop-
per; cotton from Asia, silks from Georgia, Persia, and
Bokhara; Caucasian madder, home and Turkish
tobacco, furs, tea, chemicals, and all the products
of Russian manufacture, of which M. is the actual
centre. The chief manufactures are woollen and
worsted goods, silks, brocades, dyeing, printing,
tanning and skin-dressing, iron, copper, and silver
works, and chandleries.

but it had also become the actual capital of Muscovy. In 1368, 1370, and 1372, it suffered from the inroads of the Lithuanians; in 1381, it was sacked by the Tartars. From 1415 to 1501, it was, on four separate occasions, partially destroyed by fires; and it was burned to the ground by Devlet-Girey, Khan of the Crimean Tartars, in 1571. It was taken by the Poles in 1610, and remained in their possession till their expulsion by the Russians under Minin and Pojarsky in 1612. In 1682, 1689, and 1698, it was the theatre of the revolts of the Strelitz. In 1812, from the 14th September till the 24th October, it was in the hands of the French.

MOSCOW (Russ. Moskwá), the ancient capital of Russia, and formerly the residence of the Czars, is situated in a highly-cultivated and fertile district on the Moskva, 400 miles south-east of St Petersburg, with which it is in direct communication by railway. Lat. 55° 40′ N., long. 37° 33′ E. Pop (1871) 611,970. Previously to its being burned in 1812, M. was perhaps the most irregularly built city in Europe, and that distinction to a great extent it still retains; for, as the main object in 1813 was to build speedily, the streets rose again on the old model, undulating and crooked, and consisting of alternating houses, the most varied in character and pretentions. Many improvements have, however, been recently accomplished in the city. Gas-pipes have been laid along the streets; letter-boxes are placed at frequent intervals; the Romanzoff Place, formerly so dirty, has been converted into a splendid square, with an ornamental garden, and the old obelisk, the former monument of the Place, standing in the centre, with water fountains M. is of ancient origin for a Russian town. Its on each side. The general view of the town, site was bought by Yuri Dolgoruki, in the 12th c., especially that obtained from an eminence on and a fortress built. In the 14th c., not only had its southern side called the Sparrow Hills, is it become the capital of the Russian religious world, eminently original and picturesque. Its hundreds owing to the residence there of the metropolitan, of churches and convents, surmounted by gilt or variously-coloured domes; its gardens and boulevards; and, above all, the high walls and crowded yet stately towers of the Kreml or citadel, produce a most striking effect. The Kreml, situated on the northern bank of the river, forms the centre of the town, and around it, with a radius of about a mile, is a line of boulevards, extending, however, only on the north side of the river. Outside of this line, and concentric with it, is another line of boulevards, with a radius of a mile and a half; while beyond all, and forming the girdle of the city, is the outer rampart, with a circumference of 26 English miles. The Kreml comprises the principal buildings, as the Cathedral of the Assumption of the Virgin, founded in 1326, a small but gorgeously-decorated edifice; the Cathedral of the Archangel Michael, containing the tombs of all the Czars down to the time of Peter the Great, who changed the royal burial-place to St Petersburg; the Church of the Annunciation, the floor of which is paved with jaspers, agates, and carnelians of various shapes; the tower of Ivan Veliki, 200 feet in height, and surmounted by a magnificent gilded dome, from which, as from all the domes of M., rises the honourable cross; the Czar Kolokol (king of bells), the greatest bell in the world; several palaces, and collections of ancient arms and other antiquities; the arsenal, surrounded by the splendid trophy of 850 cannons, taken from the French; and the senate. The walls of the Kreml are surmounted by 18 towers, and pierced with 5 gates. In the town, the chief buildings are the cathedral of St Vassili, remarkable for its peculiar architecture; the Gostinoi Dvor, or Bazaar; and the Exchanges. The Temple of the Saviour, which was commenced in 1812, to perpetuate the memory of the repulse of the French invasion, is not yet completed; but when finished it will be a magnificent architectural feature of this ancient capital. The university of M., the first in Russia, founded in 1753, is attended by 1800 students, and contains a library of 160,000 volumes, museums of natural history, and a botanical garden. As intermediate educational establishments between the parish schools and the university, there are provided 5 high schools or gymnasia for males, and 3 for females; special establishments are the technological, the agricultural, the oriental, 2 commercial, and 3 military schools. There are several learned societies in M., which is also the seat of a metropolitan, one of the three highest dignitaries of

MOSELLE was formerly a frontier department in the north-east of France, but the greater part of it was taken by Germany after the war of 1870-1871. The small portion left to France population (1872) 365,137. was joined to the department of Meurthe. Joint the Moselle and its tributaries; is richly wooded, It is watered by and yields abundance of grain, fruits, and wine, though the last is of an inferior quality. Agriculture is in an advanced condition; roads are Coal, iron, and building-stone are the most valu numerous, and the river-navigation important. able minerals. There are also linen, woollen, leather, glass, papier-mâché, and other manufac

tures.

MOSELLE (Ger. Mosel), an affluent of the Rhine, rises in the Vosges Mountains, France, at an elevation of about 2260 feet above the level of the sea, not far from the sources of the Saône. Its course is north-westerly as far as Pont-à-Mousson, in the department of Meurthe, where it becomes navigable; then north to Thionville, near the French frontier; after which it proceeds, in a north-easterly direction (latterly, with many zigzag picturesque windings), through Luxemburg and Rhenish Prussia, joining the Rhine at Coblentz. On its way, it passes the towns of Remiremont, Epinal, Toul, Pont-àMousson, Metz, Thionville, and Treves. From Metz to Treves it flows through a broad valley, enclosed by rounded vine-bearing hills. Its entire length is upwards of 330 miles. Its principal tributaries are the Meurthe, the Seille, and the Sarre on the right: and the Orne, the Sure, and the Kyll on the left. The wines grown in the basin of the Moselle are noted for their lightness and their delicate aromatic flavour. The inferior kinds are liable to acidity.

MOSES.

MOSES-MOSHEIM.

to the peculiarity of the race, the climate, the political state of the country which they were to inhabit; in the hygienic regulations, and the rules which treat of the social and domestic relations; and, above all, the constantly-reiterated caution from mixing again with other nations, such as they found them in Canaan-and the neglect of which subsequently proved their ruin-is traced to a direct influence of Jehovah, generally indicated by the words, And God spake to Moses, speak unto the children of Israel.' An ample Ritual, in connection with the Tabernacle, or constantlyvisible symbol of a Divine Dwelling; the allegory of an ever-new covenant represented by Sacrifices, Prayers, Purifications, kept the supreme task of being priests and a holy people unceasingly before the eyes of the nation. The tribe of Levi (q. v.), to a certain degree acted in this respect as permanent representatives; and not to Moses's sons, but to his brother Aaron and his descendants, was intrusted the office of High-priest.

6

culous liberation, and no less miraculous preservation in the desert. Their happiness-their lifewas bound up, he told them, in the Divine Law, communicated through him by Jehovah. A recapitulation of its principal ordinances, with their several modifications and additions, and reiterated exhortations to piety and virtue, form the contents of his last speeches, which close with one of the grandest poetical hymns. The law was then handed over to the priests that they might instruct the people in it henceforth; Joshua was installed as successor (while his own sons sunk into the obscu rity of ordinary Levites), and he blessed the whole people. He then ascended the Mount of Nebo, from whence he cast a first and last look upon the land towards which he had pined all his life, and on which his feet were never to tread. He died upon this mountain, 120 years old, in the full vigour of manhood, according to the Scriptures, and no man knew his burial-place up to this day'-so that neither his remains nor his tomb were desecrated by Divine honours' being superstitiously paid to them.

This is a summary of M.'s life as derived from biblical as well as non-biblical sources. The latter except, perhaps the very doubtful traditions of Manetho-belong, whatever may be the date of the respective documents of the Pentateuch, to a much later age, and bear the air of tradition and legend, grown out of those very documents, so plainly on their face, that they are of about the same importance for historical purposes as the cycle of Midrashsagas that have gathered around M., and which are reproduced variously in Moslem Legendaries. On his office as a prophet:'-what was the special nature of his revelations, how far the doctrines promulgated by him were traditional among the Abrahamites, and how much of his laws is due to Egyptian influences; whether part of them was first inaugurated by later generations and ascribed to him, or whether others were never carried out at all: on these and similar questions which have been abundantly raised, more especially in recent times, we must refer for fuller information to the special works on the subject. Some notices of the more important points will be found under GENESIS, JEWS, PENTATEUCH, DECALOGUE, &c. There seems, however, but one conclusion. The brief span of human history of which we have any knowledge, shews few, if any, men of M.'s towering grandeur-even with all the deductions that the most daring criticism has yet proposed.

When on the eve of entering into the promised land, the people broke out in open rebellion, and threatened, by a spontaneous return to the land of slavery, to undo the entire work of M.'s life. Convinced that they were not as yet fit to form a commonwealth of their own, the Liberator and Lawgiver had to postpone, for the long space of 40 years, the crowning act of his work; and, in fact, did not himself live to see them taking possession of the hallowed territory. How these years of nomadic journeying through the Desert (El-Tyh or Al-Tyh Beni-Israel) were spent, save in rearing up a new generation of a more manly and brave, as well as more 'civilised' stamp, we can only conjecture. All those who had left Egypt as men were doomed to die in the desert, either by a natural death, or by being suddenly cut off,' in consequence of their openly defying M., and through M., Jehovah. The apparent lack of incidents during this period has indeed furnished grounds for various speculations on this subject, and critics have tried to reduce it to a much shorter space, without, however, being able to prove their point. Even Goethe, with more ingenuity than knowledge of the subject, has endeavoured to prove the 'forty' to be a mythical round number, the real time being two years. The testimonies of the Hebrew prophets and historians, however, are perfectly unanimous on the subject (cf. Jos. v. 6; xiv. 10; Amos, ii. 10; v. 26; Ps. xcv. 10, &c.), and modern criticism has mostly endorsed the number as in keeping with the circumstances. On the first month of the fortieth MOSHEIM, JOHANN LORENZ VON, a distinyear after the Exodus, we find M. at the head of an guished church historian of Germany, was born at entirely new generation of Hebrews at Kadesh, in Lübeck on 9th October 1694, and studied at Kiel the Desert of Phoran or Zin. Here his sister Miriam In 1723, he became ordinary professor of theology died. Here also, for the first time, M., seeing the at Helmstedt, from which he was removed in 1747 new generation as stubborn and hard-necked' as to a similar office in Göttingen. He died Chancellor their fathers, is recorded to have despaired of the of the University of Göttingen, 9th September 1755. Divine Providence; and his disobedience to the His theological works are numerous, amongst which letter of the command given to him, 'to speak to are a work on Bible morality, Sittenlehre der Heilithe rock,' is alleged as the reason that his bones gen Schrift (new ed., continued by J. P. Miller, too had to fall in the desert.' His brother Aaron 9 vols. Helmst. 1770-1778); and Discourses, Heiligen died at Hor (near Petra, according to Josephus and Reden (3 vols. Hamb. 1732, et seq.). But his most St Jerome), whither the Israelites had gone next. important contributions to theological literature Not long afterwards, M. once more had occasion to are in the department of ecclesiastical history, punish with relentless severity the idolatrous tend- in which his Institutiones Historia Ecclesiastica encies of the people (Baal Peor), thus shewing that (Helmst. 1755) is familiar to every student as a age had had no power of making him relax his strong work of great learning, fulness, and accuracy. It rule over the still half-savage and sensuous multi- has been translated from the original very elegant tude. Having finally fixed the limits of the land to Latin into English and other languages. The best be conquered, and given the most explicit orders to English translation is that by Dr James Murdock Joshua, to Eliezer, and the chiefs of the ten tribes, (3 vols. New York, 1832), of which there are many respecting its division, he prepared the people for reprints. Besides this, M. is the author of Inhis own impending death. He recalled to their stitutiones Historic Christiana Majores (Helmst. minds in the most impressive language, their mira- | 1763); De Rebus Christianorum ante Constantinum

584

MOSOSAURUS-MOSQUE.

Commentarii (Helmst. 1753); Dissertationes ad Hist. Ecclesiasticam pertinentes (2 vols. new ed. Altona, 1767); and Versuch einer unparteiischen Ketzergeschichte (2 vols. Helmst. 1746-1748). His stand-point is that of liberal orthodoxy; yet he is essentially dogmatic, and pays more regard to the mere 'opinions' of men than to the character and genius shining through them; hence, his Church History is far inferior in point of richness, depth, and suggestiveness to that of Neander.

MOSOSAURUS (MEUSE LIZARD), a genus of huge marine lizards, whose remains occur in rocks of cretaceous age. Three species are known, one from the upper chalk of Sussex, a second from the cretaceous beds of North America, and the third from the Maestricht beds. This last (M. Hofmanii) was first known from a nearly perfect head dug out

the siege, had instructions not to point the artillery towards that part of the town in which the precious specimen was deposited. This head is four feet in length, and the animal to which it belonged is estimated to have been 25 feet long. The total number of the vertebræ was 133; they were concave in front and convex behind, and were fitted to each other by a ball-and-socket joint, admitting of easy and universal flexion; the sacrum seems to have been wanting. The limbs were developed into four large paddles, and these with the comparatively short and strong tail, the bones of which were constructed to give great muscular power, enabled the animal to move quickly through the water in pursuit of its prey. The jaws were furnished with a single row of strong conical teeth. Cuvier first shewed the affinities of the animal. It is most nearly related to the modern monitor, but differs from all modern lizards in its peculiar adaptations for an ocean life, and in its great size. The largest living lacertian is only 5 feet in length, and of this a large proportion is made up by the tail; the M., with its short tail, is estimated to have been at least 25 feet long.

MOSQUE, a Mohammedan house of prayer. The word is derived, through the Italian moschea, from the Arabic mesjid, a place of prayer. The form of the oldest mosques (at Jerusalem and Cairo) is evidently derived from that of the Christian Basilica, the narthex being the origin of the court, with its arcade, and the eastern apses representing the principal buildings of the mosque facing Mecca. The original forms became, however, entirely obliterated in the progress of Mohammedan architecture, and the mosques, with their arcaded courts, gateways, domes, and minarets, became the most characteristic edifices of Saracenic art. Wherever the Mohammedan faith prevailed, from Spain to India, beautiful examples of these buildings exist. They vary considerably in style in

Great Mosque at Delhi, from the North-east.-From Fergusson's Hand-Book of Architecture. different countries, the Saracens generally borrowing much from the architecture of the various nations who adopted their faith. In India, the mosques have many features in common with the temples of the Jains, while in Turkey they resemble the Byzantine architecture of Constantinople. Everywhere the dome is one of the leading and most beautiful features of the mosques, which commonly consist of porticoes surrounding an open square, in the centre of which is a tank or fountain for ablution. Ara

besques and sentences of the Koran inscribed upon the walls, which are generally white-washed, and never bear any device representing a living thing, are the only ornaments of the interior. The floor is generally covered with mats or carpets; there are no seats. In the south-east is a kind of pulpit (Mimbar) for the Imám; and in the direction in which Mecca lies (the Kibleh), there is a niche (Mehrab) towards which the faithful are required to look when they pray. Opposite the pulpit, there

MOSQUITO-MOSSES.

super

is generally a platform (Dikkeh), surrounded by a proboscis. Mosquitoes are readily attracted to a parapet, with a desk bearing the Koran, from which lamp, and perish in its flame; but where they are portions are read to the congregation. The five daily numerous, a lamp only causes additional swarms to prayers (see MOHAMMEDANISM), which are generally congregate to its neighbourhood until it is extin said at home-especially by the better classes-on guished, as is often very soon the case, by their week-days, are said in the mosque by the whole con- dead bodies gregation on Fridays, the days of Al-Gumah, or the Assembly, the Moslem Sundays, together with some additional prayers, and at times a sermon is added to the service. It is not customary for women to visit the mosques, and if they do, they are sepa rated from the male worshippers. The utmost solemnity and decorum are preserved during the service, although in the hours of the afternoon (when there is no worship) people are seen lounging, chatting, even engaged in their trade, in the interior of the sacred building. On entering the mosque, the Moslem takes off his shoes, carries them in his left hand, sole to sole, and putting his right foot first over the threshold, he then performs the necessary ablutions, and finishes by putting his shoes and any arms he may have with him upon the matting before him. The congregation generally arrange them selves in rows parallel to that side of the mosque in which is the niche, and facing that side. The chief officer of a mosque is the Nazir, under whom are two Imams, a kind of religious official, in no way to be compared with what we understand by a clergy. man of a creed, but who performs a certain number of religious rites, as long as the Nazir allows him to do so, and who, being very badly remunerated, generally has to find some other occupation besides. There are further many persons attached to a mosque in a lower capacity, as Mueddins (q. v.), Bowwabs (door-keepers), &c., all of whom are paid, not by contributions levied upon the people, but from the funds of the mosque itself. The revenues of mosques are derived from lands. With many of the larger mosques, there are schools, academies (Medressehs), and hospitals connected, and public kitchens, in which food is prepared for the poor.

MOSQUITO (Span. gnat), a name very generally given to the most troublesome species of Culex, and allied genera. See GNAT. The name M. is given, according to Humboldt, in some parts of tropical South America to species of Simulia, which are active during the day, whilst species of Culex, active chiefly during the night, are called Zancudoes; but these latter are the mosquitoes of other countries generally. The name was probably first used in the West Indies, where it particularly designates a species (C. Mosquito) very similar to the common gnat, but not quite so large, with black proboscis, and marked with silvery white on the head, thorax, and abdomen. It abounds in the warm parts of America, especially in marshy districts and in the vicinity of stagnant waters. It and similar species extend even to very northern regions, appearing during the heat of summer in prodigious swarms. Similar species are found also in similar situations in almost all parts of the world, and are almost as great a pest in Lapland as within the tropics. The bite which they inflict is painful, and their incessant sharp buzzing prevents sleep. In India and other countries, beds are provided with mosquito curtains of gauze, which are closely drawn, to protect the occupant, while the natives who cannot avail themselves of such protection, smear their bodies with oil. So numerous are mosquitoes in some localities in South America, that the wretched inhabitants sleep with their bodies covered over with sand three or four inches deep, the head only being left out, which they cover with a handkerchief; and travellers have been obliged to have recourse to the same expedient. Even thick clothes afford at best a very partial protection from mosquitoes being readily penetrated by the

MOSQUITO COAST, MOSQUITO TERRI TORY, or MOSQUITIA, formerly a native king. dom, under the protectorate of Britain, lies on the the north, Nicaragua on the west, and Costa Rica east coast of Central America, having Honduras on on the south. The area is estimated at 15,000 English square miles, but as 20,000 miles of contested territory lie between it, and Honduras and Nicaragua, its extent would be more correctly given at 25,000 square miles. The coast is low, with many bays and lagunes, and possesses a number of good harbours. The two principal rivers are the Rio de Segovia (which rises within 35 miles of the Pacific into the Caribbean Sea. The climate is rainy, and Ocean), and the Rio Escondido, both of which flow the temperature, considering the latitude, is cool and equal, the thermometer seldom rising above 82° or falling below 71°. On the whole, this territory is one of the most healthy parts of Central America. Ague is not unusually common, epidemics are exceedingly rare, and white people who do not recklessly expose themselves enjoy the best health. The swampy grounds are generally covered with dense forests, in which dye-woods and timber-trees of great value abound. Rice, maize, manioc, and other tropical plants, are cultivated. The country abounds in deer of various kinds, half-wild horses and oxen roam in the savannahs, which are covered with tall grass, and alligators and serpents are

common.

The chief exports are mahogany, cocoa, ginger, sarsaparilla, and tortoise-shell, but the whole trade is inconsiderable. The inhabitants are of but many are a cross between the native Indians various races, the greater portion being aboriginal, than from 10,000 to 15,000 in all. Their chief occuand runaway negroes; they do not number more pations are hunting and fishing, but a little agriculture and cattle breeding are also practised.

and though never conquered, was claimed by Spain The M. C. was discovered in 1502 by Columbus, till about 1660, when the king, with consent of his people, placed himself under the protection of Britain. British colonists at different times attempted to found settlements in various parts of the country, but from various causes were soon after compelled to withdraw. Of late years they have met with more success. The foothold Britain thus obtained in Central America was viewed with great jealousy by the United States, who left no means untried to effect her expulsion. During the British protectorate consisting of a legislative body, and regular jury a sort of constitutional government was established, courts. In July 1850, the United States and Great Britain bound themselves by the Clayton-Bulwer treaty 'not to occupy, fortify, colonise, or exercise dominion over the M. C., or any part of Central America;' and in November 1859, Britain ceded the protectorate of M. C. along with the Bay Islands to Honduras, a proceeding which gave rise to much discontent among the natives of the coast, and a complete rebellion of the islanders. However, by a subsequent treaty, concluded 26th January 1860, the whole territory was finally handed over to Nicaragua.

MOSSES (Musci), an order of acotyledonous plants, consisting of mere cellular tissue without vessels, and distinguished from Hepatice (q.v.), the order with which they are most nearly allied, by having always a leafy stem, and an operculated