...... without requiring subscriptions from the public. By versally adopted, but they would have continued to be used, and he would thus have prevented the lamentable confusion into which the printing for the blind in this country has fallen. But unfortunately, Mr. Alston being encouraged by the decision of the Scottish Society of Arts, which he himself had very much helped to influence, fell into the double error of adopting the Roman capitals for his alphabet, and making his type too small. The consequence was, that a reaction very soon took place, the blind themselves being the first to rebel. The want of sufficient legibility was in their judgment a fatal objection, and outweighed all other considerations. Even the large amount of money that had been expended, and the extensive libraries that had been formed through Mr. Alston's energetic labours, they were prepared to sacrifice, in order to obtain books which they could read with ease. ties and publishers, to print books for the blind in Behold the Lamb of God the improved type at so much per sheet, as an ordinary business transaction, without either subscriptions or donations. Of this offer the London SundaySchool Union, the Religious Tract Society, and the British and Foreign Bible Society availed themselves in 1837, and in 1838 he printed for the British and Foreign Bible Society the gospel by Luke and the Acts of the Apostles (two of the eight volumes of the New Testament), which they were able to sell at 48. each: and here ended Mr. Gall's labours for the blind, extending over a period of twelve years, during eleven of which (1826-1837) he had been alone in the field. As the Institutions for the blind in those days had not hitherto (as they expressed it) patronised any device of this kind, Mr. Gall had to contend singlehanded with all the apathy and incredulity which every new thing has to encounter. But now the tide had turned, readers were multiplying over the country, schools for the blind were beginning to be formed, the institutions abroad had all patronised the device,' and printing-presses were busy both in America and on the continent; so that when the Sunday-School Union, the London Tract Society, and the British and Foreign Bible Society began to publish classbooks, tracts, and Bibles for the blind, they all at once became convinced of its importance, and took it up with so much energy that there was now no longer any danger of its being abandoned; and as Mr. Gall's work was thus practically accomplished, it was neither his interest nor his inclination to compete with them. Gall's Serrated Type (New Testament, £1, 128.). Howe's American Type (New Testament, 168.). Alston's Glasgow Type (New Testament, £2). The second in the field, or rather simultaneously with Mr. Alston, was Mr. Lucas of the Bristol Institution, who invented a most ingenious system of stenographic printing with arbitrary characters and num berless contractions, by which he secured largeness of The The third competitor was Mr. Frere of London, whose objections to Mr. Lucas's system were so strong, that he was induced to devise another, which was (as The first, and by far the most energetic, of the number was Mr. John Alston, of Glasgow, who, having established a printing-press in the Blind Asylum, of which he was treasurer, printed in 1837 the gospel by St. Mark in the same type in which (unknown to him) it had been printed in 1834 by Mr. Snider in Philadelphia. Through his influence it was at once he himself described it) 'a scientific representation of adopted in the other institutions throughout the king- speech, the alphabet containing only one character for dom; and, having thrown himself with much enthu- each of the simple sounds of the English language.' siasm into the work, he very soon raised funds by This opinion was shared by another large section of which he completed the New Testament in 1838, and the friends of the blind; and accordingly, in 1839, the whole Bible in 1840. To him, therefore, belongs another society was formed, another Bible was printed, the honour of having printed the first complete Bible another literature was created, and another illustrafor the blind in any language, because Dr. Howe of tion was supplied of the difficulty of securing the uniAmerica, although he commenced the work earlier, versal and permanent adoption of any arbitrary chadid not finish it till 1842. The effect was immediate racter for the blind. Mr. Frere had also the merit of and decisive, rivalry was extinguished, hundreds of the inventing the return lines'-that is to say, the lines blind were brought under instruction, and reading was in his books are read from left to right, and from thenceforth acknowledged to be a necessary depart-right to left alternately, the letters themselves being ment of the education for the blind. If Mr. Alston had adopted a modification of the low-case alphabet, and more especially, if he had printed his books in a much larger type, they would have been an unspeakable blessing to the blind in this country; because, not only would they have been uni reversed in the return lines. He also devised a cheap and very ingenious method of setting up and stereotyping his books, the letters being formed of small In this, as well as in the specimens which follow, the words are: 'BEHOLD THE LAMB OF GOD.' bits of bent wire laid on a tin plate, and fastened with heat. (New Testament, £2, 108.) The fourth competitor was Mr. Moon, of the Brighton Blind Asylum. He, too, uses an arbitrary alphabet, some of the letters resembling or suggesting the letters which they represent. He has also adopted Mr. Frere's return lines,' but does not reverse the letters as Mr. Frere does, his letters being the same both in going and returning. Mr. Moon's printing is larger than any other, and therefore more easily felt. This is a great advantage to beginners, and to those whose touch is very obtuse, although no doubt his books are on that account both bulky and expensive. Nevertheless, this is by far the safest side on which to err, and therefore Mr. Moon's books are great favourites with the blind. A third society has been formed to extend this system; and, upon the whole, has been more successful than the others, having numerous branches throughout the country, which seek out the blind, and teach them to read. Mr. Moon has printed a fourth Bible, and created a fourth very extensive literature for the blind. (The price of the New Testament is £4, 10s.) A fifth system has been recently imported from Paris, invented by M. Braille, which consists of the sixty-two varieties of form which six dots, can At present, it is impossible to predict the triumph of any of these systems, as their respective advocates are not only determined, but able to keep their ground. But as recent legislation has made provision for the education of the blind in common schools, where the influence of rival societies and extraordinary geniuses, who are not the best guides for their less talented brethren, will not be felt, it is not improbable that some common system will gradually come into general use. In the Report of the Royal Commissioners of the Exhibition of 1851, surprise is expressed that Mr. Gall's labours should have been so summarily set aside, and they recommend now the universal adoption of Dr. Howe's books. WRITING FOR THE BLIND.-This is of two kinds; first, writing to be read by the blind; and, second, writing by the blind, to be read by the seeing. Messrs. Milne and M'Baine of the Edinburgh Asy lum invented the 'string alphabet,' by which they were enabled to communicate with one another. The letters were represented by different kinds of knots tied upon a cord singly or combined. This was superseded in 1838 by Mr. Gall's writing stamps, which, as they can be made to any pattern, have been much used. The paper is placed on a cushion frame, and a barred guide placed over it. The stamps are made of pins fixed in wood, and when pressed through thick writing-paper, produce a raised letter on the other side. M. Braille's system of writing corresponds with his alphabet. Cartridge paper is placed over a grooved plate, with a guide having two rows of oblong holes. A blunt point forces the paper into the grooves, so as to produce the dots which form the letters on the other side. This is by far the most legible writing which has yet been provided for the blind, and is a strong recommendation of his alphabet for printing. There are two methods of writing by the blind to be read by the seeing. The first is by Mr. St. Clair, a teacher of music in Edinburgh; the other is Mr. Gall's Typhlograph. In both processes, the writing is produced by a hard pencil with a fine point, or by a blunt bodkin moving over carbonised paper, which deposits the blacking on the paper wherever it is pressed. Mr. St. Clair's guide consists of a line of small square holes, each of which represents a letter or a space. The steel point enters each hole, and cut in a consists of a hole of this shape, thin brass guide, which slides freely between two of the hole is used when the guide leans against the wooden fillets, united at each end. The upper half Commandment lower fillet, and the lower half is used when the guide leans against the upper fillet. When the steel point has traced a line round the upper or lower half of the hole, it is stopped by the small projection in the middle of the right side-thus: Mighty ARITHMETIC FOR THE BLIND.-There are three methods: 1. The Parisian. Embossed types are dropped into square holes in a perforated board, and read by the finger. 2. Saunderson's. Angular pins are dropped into angular holes, and indicate the figures according to their position. The pentagonal is the most convenient form, because one pin having the two ends different can represent ten ciphers. 3. Gall's requires no apparatus at all, the ciphers being BLINDAGE-BLINDWORM. Although reading, writing, and tangible arithmetic are of great importance to the B., yet oral instruction is that upon which we must chiefly rely for their education. For that reason, the recent Education Act for Scotland, under which blind children may be educated in common schools, will be a great blessing to them. BLI'NDAGE. When a besieged town has little or no bomb-proof shelter, screens are sometimes used called B., made of timber and earth; or of trees inclined towards each other, or placed in an inclined position against walls. BLIND COAL. See ANTHRACITE. BLINDNESS may arise from any cause intercepting the rays of light on their way to the optic nerve, or from disease of the optic nerve, or of that part of the brain connected with it. B. may vary in degree; it may exist from birth, or be the result of extreme old age. It may only be present during the day or the night, or a few weeks of the year, or it may be permanent. Congenital B. is generally from some deficient development of the nervous apparatus, and is detected by the child being indifferent to light, and throwing its head from side to side. Occasionally, but very rarely, the power of vision is subsequently developed. Amaurosis has been already described. Opacity of the vitreous humour, or of the crystalline lens-the latter is generally known as cataract -causes B., which comes on gradually. The patient with cataract can see best in the evening, or when the pupil is dilated, as then some rays of light are able to enter by the side of the opacity. The B. from cataract is seldom so complete as to prevent the person from distinguishing day from night, or from being aware of opaque bodies passing between him and the light (see CATARACT). Opacities of the cornea, if extensive, or in the axis of vision, produce some degree of B., whether they are on or in its substance. In general, these are irremediable; but if there is a spot, an artificial pupil may be made. Some years ago, Mr. Bowman, of London, met with a case in which the opacity consisted of a layer of phosphate and carbonate of lime: he removed it, and restored the vision, which had been totally lost for several years. Night B. is a rare condition, in which a person finds, towards evening, that objects are becoming less and less distinct, and at last that he is totally blind. This may occur without previous warning, and cause great alarm, but next morning he finds that his sight is restored. This is repeated every night, but at last the eyes become weak during the day also, and may finally become amaurotic. This strange affection may be epidemic; it has attacked bodies of troops exposed to great fatigues and the glare of the sun's rays. If there are no symptoms of disease within the brain, recovery generally results from protecting the eyes from the light, entire repose, such remedies as correct any constitutional defect in the individual attacked, and repeated blistering. Day B. is characterised by inability to see in a bright light; the subjects of it see more than usually well at night, but during the day have to be led about. Ceptives who have been long immured in dark cells are often affected with it, as a galley-slave mentioned by Larrey, who had for thirty-three years been shut up in a subterraneous dungeon, and when liberated could only see by night. The structural causes of B. will be better understood when the eye (q. v.) is described, when it will be seen that advances in our knowledge of its anatomy have enabled surgeons to restore sight in cases which, some years ago, would have been considered hopeless; but it can never be too strongly impressed, especially on the young, that overwork wears out the eyes, whatever be the pursuit, and that, without being wholly dark, a degree of blindness may be induced, such as to render the eyes useless for practical purposes. This condition, asthenopia or weak sight, is frequently met with in young lads with sedentary occupations, students, dressmakers; and, says Dr. Mackenzie of Glasgow, 'what may be called the hot-house education of modern times is a fruitful source of it.' The only cure is avoiding the evident causes. BLINDNESS, COLOUR. See COLOUR BLINDNESS. BLINDSTORY, another name for the triforium (q. V.), the second or middle arcade in the wall which separates the body from the aisles of a church. It is so called obviously as opposed to the clearstory or clerestory (q. v.), the third and uppermost arcade, the apertures of which admitted light into the church, while the apertures of the triforium were dark-obscuræ fenestræ, as they are The B., which termed by Gervase of Cantebury. is most common in cathedral, conventual, and collegiate churches, served to give access to the various parts of the building, and to suspend tapestry and banners on high holidays. Viewed aesthetically, the gloom of the B. contrasts well with the lustre of the clerestory. BLI'NDWORM (Anguis fragilis), a small reptile, which, although it has commonly been ranked among serpents by naturalists, in consequence of agreement in general form, exhibits remarkable points of difference from the true serpents, and constitutes one of an interesting series of links by which they are connected with lizards. Mr. Gray has therefore recently united this, and other nearly allied genera, with the Scink and Seps family of saurian reptiles under the name of Saurophidia (Lizard-serpents), amongst which the gradation from the lizard to the serpent structure is marked by the more and more complete disappearance of limbs, and the increasing elongation of the Blindworm. body. In the genus Anguis there is no trace of limbs externally, but the bones of the shoulder, the sternum or breast-bone, and the pelvis still exist in a rudimentary condition: the bones of the head, also, connect it with lizards, and do not BLISTERED STEEL-BLOCK. mischief, to some more superficial part of the body. admit of that dilatation of the gape which charac- or from some organ where it may do permanent terises true serpents. The common B. is the only species of this genus known in Britain. It is found also in almost all parts of Europe. In some districts of Britain it is plentiful; in others, it is very rare or even unknown. It is a perfectly inoffensive creature, although it has very generally been persecuted by the ignorant as extremely venomous. Its teeth are so small that even when it attempts to bite, which it only does upon much irritation, it cannot pierce the skin. No species of the group to which it belongs has poison-fangs. It is very timid, and when alarmed, contracts itself forcibly, and then becomes remarkably brittle, so as to be easily broken in two by a blow or by an attempt to bend it. This character of fragility is found also in other animals of this group. The name B. has apparently originated in a mistake caused by the smallness of the eyes, which, however, are very quick and brilliant. Another common name, Slow-worm, is more accurately characteristic. The length varies from 11 to 15 inches, and sometimes even exceeds this; the thickness is almost equal throughout, the tail is blunt at the end; the scales are small, and nearly equal; the tongue is notched at the extremity, but not bifid as in snakes; the colour is generally silvery gray, a dark line runs along the back, and frequently rows of dark spots along the sides. The food of the B. consists of slugs and insects. It retires in autumn under masses of decayed wood and leaves, or into soft dry soil. It changes its skin. It is viviparous (ovoviviparous), the number of young varying from 7 to 12 or 13 at a birth. The name B. is sometimes given to Cæcilia (q. v.). Mustard (Sinapis nigra) is frequently used, but seldom left on sufficiently long to produce blistering. Tincture of cantharides, croton oil, and strong liquor ammonia, tartar emetic ointment, and many others are used in practice. If the occasion for the blister passes off, the vesicles should be pricked, and their fluid contents allowed to trickle away, the vesicated surface being then dressed with some cold cream or lard. But if it should appear desirable to promote a discharge from the skin, the raised cuticles may be snipped off, and the blister either applied again at intervals, or some stimulating ointment as the savine (Junipe us sabina) made use of. Great cleanliness should be observed in dressing the part. Of late years, B. have been much used for the dispersion of glandular tumours, and are also applied over the surfaces of indolent ulcers, with the view of increasing the vascularity of the part. For old diseases of joints, B. ought to be placed at a little distance from the affected joint. BLI'STERED or BLISTER STEEL. This is the kind of steel from which, by hammering, rolling, &c., certain qualities of tools and files are fashioned. When broken up, piled and welded under the ham- BLOCH, MARCUS ELIESER, a celebrated ichthymer, it forms shear steel (see IRON), from which a ologist, born of poor Jewish parents, at Anspach, finer class of tools is made, and when melted in cru-in Bavaria, 1723. He was allowed to grow up cibles it forms the finest kind of cast steel (q. v.) for in extreme ignorance. At 19, he had read nothing cutlery. Blister steel is made from bar iron of supe- except a few useless rabbinical treatises. About rior quality by a process of cementation; and the fur- that age, however, he became assistant to nuce employed for the purpose is termed a converting Jewish surgeon at Hamburg, where he took the furnace. It consists of two fire-brick rectangular opportunity of learning German and Latin. A chests or troughs, each being sixteen feet long and slight knowledge which he had acquired of anathree feet deep by three feet wide, as a maximum tomy inspired him with an extraordinary desire size, placed alongside each other in an arched cham- to study that science thoroughly. For this purpose ber, and surmounted by a wide conical chimney. One he went to Berlin, and devoted himself to it and long fire-place, with a suitable arrangement of flues, other branches of natural history with indefatigable heats both chests. Into each chest the iron bars are zeal. He took the degree of Doctor of Medicine at laid embedded in charcoal, about half an inch of which Frankfort-on-the-Oder; and returned to Berlin to intervenes between each layer of iron bars. The practise his profession, where he died 6th August whole is then plastered over with clay or grind- 1799. His great work is the Allgemeine Naturstone-dust, and kept at a glowing red heat from seven geschichte der Fische (12 vols., Berlin, 1782-1795, with to ten days, according to the purpose for which the 432 coloured plates), long the most comprehensive blister steel is intended. When the bars are re-work on ichthyology, and still valuable especially moved after cooling, they are found to have undergone a remarkable change. They are no longer tough, but quite brittle, and fusible, and covered over with blisters. During the process, the iron absorbs and combines with from a half to one and a half per cent. of carbon. The blisters are supposed to be due to the evolution of carbonic oxide arising from the combination of carbon with a trace of oxygen existing in the iron. BLI'STERING FLIES. See CANTHARIDES. BLISTERS are medicinal agents which, when applied to the skin, raise the cuticle into small vesicles filled with serous fluid. They are applied either in the form of plasters or in a fluid state, as suits the convenience of the person or part, and have for their object the establishing of a counterirritation or diversion of inflammatory action from a part in which it cannot be reached by remedies, for its pictures. His Systema ichthyologie iconibus CX illustratum, which was left in an unfinished state, was published by Schneider (Berlin, 1801). After his death, his collection of fishes was purchased by government, and forms a part of the Berlin zoological museum. BLOCK, in the rigging of a ship, is an important part of the apparatus necessary for raising sails and yards, tightening ropes, &c. The B. comprises both the frame or shell, and the pulley or pulleys contained within it. In seamen's language, a tackle includes the rope as well as the B. through which it works. The uses of blocks are very numerous on shipboard; and to subserve these uses, they are distributed about the masts, yards, sails, and ropes. They vary greatly in size, shape, power, and desig nation; but nearly every B. comprises a shell or wooden exterior, a sheave or wheel on which the BLOCKADE. rope runs, a pin or axle on which the sheave turns, and a strap (of rope or iron) to fasten the B. to any particular station (see PULLEY). A single B. contains only one sheave; a double B., two; and so on. Besides the designation of blocks according to the number of sheaves they contain (single, double, treble, fourfold), ships' blocks receive numerous other names-such as bee-B., cut-B., cheek-B., clew-garnet B., clew-line B., &c. Some of these names depend on the kind of service, others on the place of fixing; while the rest are examples of the odd nomenclature adopted by seamen. Block-making. Ships' blocks were made by hand until about 80 years ago. But mere workers in wood could not produce them; it required unusual skill and practice to fashion the several pieces, and put them together so as to possess the requisite strength and facility in working. The trade was either carried on alone, or in conjunction with mast-making. More than 1400 such blocks were required for one of the old 74's, and a proportionate number for vessels of larger or smaller size. Various forms of Ships' Blocks: a, long-tackle block; b, clew-line block; c, double block. the other forms, according to the circumstances of each case. The rest of the besieging force remains under cover in villages, or in a temporary camp, ready to repel any sortie attempted by besieged. The whole purpose in view is to prevent the besieged from receiving supplies of any kind, in order that, when the food or the ammuni tion is exhausted, they may be compelled to surrender. Fortresses situated on steep and rocky eminences, difficult to conquer by bombardment or assault, may often be reduced by B.; because the roads or paths for the reception of supplies are few, and can be watched by a small number of troops. Towns situated on a plain are less frequently invested. If the inhabitants be numerous and commercial, they will soon be impatient of the restraint produced by a B., and may compel or induce the governor to adopt a plan opposed to his wishes as a soldier. If, however, a resistance be determined on, the governor sends out of the town as many noncombatants as possible; all the stores are collected in bomb-proof receptacles; economy is observed in the consumption of food; all the people within the walls are placed under military rules; and the governor endeavours, by frequent sorties, to prevent the besiegers from making too close an investment of the place. Blockading, in a naval sense, is the prevention of the entrance or exit of the enemy's ships at a particular port. It occurs sometimes as an auxiliary to military operations by land; but on others it is limited to a maritime investment. BLOCKA'DE, in international Law, is the means, In 1781, a Mr. Taylor began to make the sheaves in time of war, of rendering intercourse with an and shells of blocks by a process which he had enemy's port unlawful on the part of neutrals; and invented. He made all the blocks for the royal it is carried into effect by an armed force (ships of navy until the expiration of his patent rights. The war), which blocks up and bars export or import Admiralty then commenced the manufacture on to or from the place blockaded. This right is detheir own account. In 1801, Mr. (afterwards Sir) scribed by all writers on the law of nations as clear Mark Isambard Brunel submitted to the Admi- and incontrovertible, having its origin in the soundest ralty a working-model of a very beautiful system principles of maritime jurisprudence, sanctioned by of machinery for block-making; it was accepted, the practice of the best times. It is explained and the inventor engaged to set up the apparatus on the reasonable theory, that if a potentate or at Portsmouth. So intricate was the machinery, government lays siege to a place, or simply blockades and so great the difficulty in procuring the several it, such potentate or government has a right to working-parts from the machinists of those days, prevent any other power, or representative or subject that it was not until the year 1808 that the system of such power, from entering, and to treat as an was put into effective operation. It was then, how- enemy any one who attempts to enter the blockaded ever, so perfect, that very few additions or improve-place, or in any way assist the besieged, for such a ments have since been needed. The machinery made person opposes the undertaking, and contributes to blocks more accurately than they had ever been the miscarriage of it. made by hand, and with the aid of ordinary workmen only. It could effect £50,000 worth of work in a year, or 140,000 blocks, by the assistance of ten men attending the machine. Duplicate machinery was made for Chatham. Brunel received £20,000 for his invention and for his personal superintendence until the machinery was brought into working-order; this sum was money well laid out, for the machine saved to the country more than £20,000 a year, in the busy warlike period from 1808 to 1815. The machinery itself is too complicated to be described except at a length incompatible with the limits of this work; but it may be stated in a general way, that the system is made up chiefly of saws and lathes, combined with great ingenuity. The blocks are made of elm, and the sheaves of lignum vitæ; the pins are of iron, carefully prepared to avoid friction as much as possible. BLOCKA'DE, in military tactics, is an operation for capturing an enemy's town or fortress, without a bonbardment or regular siege. The attacking party throws up works on the neighbouring heights and roads; these works may be redoubts, for 200 or 300 men each, raised around at distances of 1000 or 1500 yards asunder; or they may assume Lord Stowell laid it down that there are two sorts of B.-one by the simple fact only, the other by a notification accompanied with the fact. In the former case, when the fact ceases-otherwise than by accident or the shifting of the wind-there is immediately an end of the B.; but where the fact is accompanied by a public notification from the government of a belligerent country to neutral governments, the B. must be supposed to exist till it has been publicly repealed. This notification it is the duty of the belligerent country to make immediately. His lordship also explained that, on the question of B., three things must be proved: 1st, The existence of an actual B.; 2d, The knowledge of the party; and 3d, Some act of violation, either by going in or coming out with a cargo laden after the commencement of blockade. this last point, the time of shipment is very material; for although it might be hard to refuse a neutral liberty to retire with a cargo already laden, and by that act already become neutral property, yet, after the commencement of a B., a neutral cannot be allowed to interfere in any way to assist the exportation of the property of the enemy. After the commencement of a B., a neutral is no On |