and some other species of the genus Cebus, South American monkeys, which have the head covered with short hair, so disposed as to resemble the cowl of a capuchin, the face being almost naked, or only covered with a little down. See CEBUS. Pithecia chiropotes, a South American monkey of a genus

Capuchin Monkey (Pithecia chiropotes).

tropical rivers. It is equal in size to a small pig. The dentition resembles that of the cavy, except that the grinding teeth are composed of numerous transverse plates, the number of the plates increasing as the animal advances in age; an interesting point of resemblance to the dentition of the elephant, and

a link of connection between the rodents and the pachydermata. The C. feeds exclusively on vegetable food, browsing on the grass near the rivers, and often committing great ravages in plantations of sugar-cane. It runs badly, but swims and dives well, and has the power of remaining under water for seven or eight minutes. It is very inoffensive, and easily tamed. The flesh, except that of old males, is good, and is eaten by all classes of persons. The C. is sometimes called Water-hog, of which Hydrocharus is a Greek translation. In Demerara, it is called Water-horse, a corruption of the Dutch Water Haas-i. e., water-hare.

CARA BIDE, a tribe of beetles, or coleopterous insects, of the section Pentamera (see COLEOPTERA), corresponding with the genus Carabus of Linnæus, but of which the species are extremely numerous, those already known being numbered by thousands. They mostly feed on other insects, worms, &c., and are extremely voracious and active, habits which are fully shared by their larvæ. Some of them burrow in the earth; most of them live under

CAPUCHINS, a branch of the order of Francise ans (q. v.), so designated from the capuche which is their head-dress.

CA'PUDAN-PASHA', the High Admiral of Turkey. He has the entire command of the navy, and the management of all naval affairs. The port of Pera, contiguous to the arsenal, the Turkish islands in the Archipelago, and a number of seaports and maritime districts, are under him, even in their civil administration.

CA'PUT MO'RTUUM VITRI'OLI, or COLCOTHAR, is the name given by the alchemists to the red powder (mainly red oxide of iron) which remains in the retorts when green vitriol or the sulphate of iron is calcined.

CAPY BARA (Hydrocharus Capybara), a quadruped of the order Glires or Rodentia, and of the

Capybara (Hydrocharus Capybara).

family Cavide, strongly resembling the Cavy or Guinea-pig, although it is the largest existing rodent known, and aquatic in its habits. It is a native of South America, and abounds in many of the large

and their bodies are adapted to this mode of life, being very firm and hard. Their legs are in general

Mormolyce phyllodes.

pretty long, and most of them pursue their prey rather by the use of their legs than of their wings, some of them indeed being wingless, or having only rudimentary wings. Many of them exhibit much beauty of colours and metallic lustre. The largest British species is only about an inch long, but some foreign ones are much larger. Some of the species of the restricted genus Carabus are among the most common British insects. Their wings are not fitted for flight.-A very large and singular insect of the tribe C. is Mormolyce phyllodes, a native of Java, which, in consequence of the extremely depressed form of its body, resembles some of the Mantida (q. v.), and the insects known as Leaf-insects (q. v.). To this tribe belong also the Bombardier Beetles (q. v.).

CA'RABOU. See REINDEER.

CA'RACAL (Felis Caracal), a species of Lynx (q. v.), found in the warmer parts of Asia, and throughout the whole of Africa; and more probably than any European species, the lynx of the ancients. It is larger than a fox, about the same height, but much more powerful; of a uniform deep brown or wine-red colour, except two spots near each eye, the under parts of the body, and inner

CARACCI, AGOSTINO, cousin of Ludovico, was born (1558) in Bologna. He became a disciple of his cousin, but he was of too versatile a genius to devote himself closely to any subject, though his magni ficent painting of the Communion of St. Jerome' proves that he might have attained to very great eminence, had he devoted his undivided attention to the art; but he was in the habit of abandoning his easel for literature, poetry, and engraving on copper. As an engraver, indeed, he holds an important position in Italian art. He accompanied his younger brother, Annibale, to Rome, and there assisted in some of the paintings in the Farnese Gallery; but his brother, who was a slave to his art, soon quarrelled with him for his inattention, and he left Rome, and went to Parma. He died in 1602.

CARACCI, ANNIBALE, brother of Agostino, was born (1560) in Bologna, where he learned, under his father, the business of a tailor, from which he was called away by Ludovico Caracci. His progress in the study of painting was rapid, and at first he took principally for his models Correggio, Titian, and Paul Veronese. His picture of St. Roche distributing Alms' first gained for Annibale C. a wide reputation. His fame reached Rome, and he was employed to paint the Farnese Gallery there, which is considered his greatest work, and the manner of which partakes somewhat of Raphael and Correggio. On this gallery he was employed some eight years, and he received for his work the incredibly paltry sum of 500 crowns. In disgust and vexation the artist threw aside his pallet. He died in Rome in 1609, where his remains were interred, close to Raphael's tomb, in the Pantheon. Annibale C. was one of the greatest followers of Correggio, and in composition approached most nearly to the style of Raphael. Ludovico had a greater talent in teaching, and Agostino had a more versatile invention, but Annibale was unquestionably the greatest artist of the

three Caracci.

CARACCI, ANTONIO, natural son of Agostino, was born at Venice 1583, died in 1618. He was a pupil under Annibale, and painted some excellent pictures.

CARACCI, FRANCESCO (styled FRANCESCHINI), brother of Agostino and Annibale, was born in 1595, and distinguished himself as an eminent designer. He died 1622.-The best Italian masters of the 17th c.-Domenichino, Guido Reni, Albani, and othersproceeded from the school of the Caracci.

CARACCIOLI. The name of a Neapolitan family unfortunately associated with the memory of Lord Nelson. Several members of this family were employed in political offices.-LOUIS ANTOINE DE C., born in Paris 1721, died 1803, was the author of a pseudograph, entitled Lettres Intéressantes du Pope Clement XIV., which mystified many readers throughout Europe.-FRANCESCO C., a meritorious Neapolitan admiral, entered in early life the marine service, and distinguished himself at Toulon, 1793. In the year 1798, the offensive conduct of the court of Naples toward C. induced him to return from Falermo, where the court was then residing, to Naples, where he entered into the service of the republic, established by the French invaders, and, with a few vessels, prevented the attempted landing of a Sicilian and British fleet. In 1799, when Ruffo took Naples, C. was arrested, contrary to the

terms of capitulation, sentenced to death by the junta, hanged on the mast of a frigate, and his corpse thrown into the sea. This affair, to which Lord Nelson was a consenting party, is a stain on the reputation of the English admiral.

inhabited South Wales, was one of the most persistCARA'CTACUS, a king of the Silures, who

ent enemies of the Romans in Britain. For nine

years he warred gallantly against the invaders, wife and daughters fell into the hands of the but at length was completely overthrown. His victors, and his brothers surrendered. C. himself fled to Cartimandua, queen of the Brigantes, who delivered him up to the Romans. He was carried to Rome, 51 A.D., and exhibited to the people by When he approached the imperial seat, we are told, he addressed Claudius in the Emperor Claudius. so noble a manner, that he and his relatives were immediately pardoned. They appear, however, to have lived during the remainder of their lives in Italy.

CA'RADOC SANDSTONE AND BA'LA BEDS, a division of the Lower Silurian System, so named from their development at Caer Caradoc, in Shropshire. They consist of sandstones, grits, and slates, with occasional beds of limestone. Enormous masses of contemporaneous igneous rocks are interstratified with them. They attain a thickness of 9000 feet, not including the igneous rocks. Fossils are very abundant in some beds. They consist chiefly of Trilobites (q. v.), Brachiopoda (q. v.), and Graptolites (q. v.).

The Silurian rocks in southern districts of Ayrshire belong to this division.

CARA'GLIO, a town of the Sardinian states, in the province of Coni, six miles west of the city of that name. It is situated on the Grana, and has manufactures of silk. Pop. 6268.

CARAMA'NIA. See KARAMAN.

CARA'MBOLA, an East Indian fruit, of the size and shape of a duck's egg, but with five acute angles, or longitudinal ribs. It has a yellow, thin, smooth rind, and a clear watery pulp, in some varieties sweet, in others acid, of very agreeable flavour. It is often used in making sherbets, and in tarts and preserves; and is known to the British in India as the Coromandel Gooseberry. It is one of the most universally cultivated and abundant of the fruits of India. It is produced by the Averrhoa Carambola, a small evergreen tree, or bush, of the natural order Oxalidea. The BILIMBI, or BLIMBING, is the very acid fruit of another species of the same genus, A. Bilimbi, also East Indian. Both species are now much cultivated in the tropical parts of America. Both exhibit an irritability of leaf resembling that of the sensitive plant; they also display in a remarkable degree the phenomena known to physiologists as those of Sleep (q. v.) in plants.

CA'RAMEL is the name applied to the dark brown and nearly tasteless substance produced on the application of heat to sugar (q. v.). It is likewise formed during the roasting of all materials containing sugar, such as coffee, chicory, and malt (see BEER), and is one cause of the dark colour of porter and infusions of coffee. It is also employed in the colouring of whiskey, wines, vinegar, &c.

CARAMNA'SSA, a river in the sub-presidency of Bengal, which rises in lat. 24° 34' N., and long. 83° 46' E., and, after a course of about 150 miles, enters the Ganges from the right in lat. 25° 28' N., and long. 89° 58' E. It is remarkable on several grounds. Though, on issuing from its

source, it is clear as crystal, it is yet said to be both nauseous and noxious-a peculiarity which the natives impute to various supernatural causes; about 50 miles from its mouth, it is crossed by a stone bridge of three wide arches, which forms part of the grand road from Calcutta to Delhi; and lastly, it is so exceptionally subject to floods, that it has been known to rise 25 feet in a night, when scarcely any rain had fallen in the adjacent plain of the Ganges itself.

CARA'NA RESIN, more commonly, but less correctly, called GUM CARANA, is a resinous substance imported from the tropical parts of America. Its properties and uses resemble those of tacamahac. It is entirely soluble in alcohol, and melts in a slight heat. It is not well known what tree produces it.

CARA'NJA, an island on the east side of the ordinary entrance of the harbour of Bombay (q. v.), separated from the mainland by a narrow and unserviceable channel of four miles in length. It is itself two miles broad, being comparatively level and fertile, with the exception of two hills-the Little Hill in the north, and the Great in the south.

CARANX. See SCAD.

CARAPA, a genus of plants of the natural order Meliaceae, natives of warm climates. C. Guianensis, or quareoides, sometimes called the Anderaba, also the C. tree, is a large tree with beautiful shining pinnate leaves, which have many leaflets, a native of Guiana and the adjacent countries, where its bark has a great reputation as a febrifuge, and the oil obtained from its seeds is much used for lamps. Masts of ships are made of its trunk. The oil, which is called Oil of Carapa, is thick and bitter, and is anthelmintic.-C. Touloucouna, or Guineensis, an African species, yields a similar oil, which is employed by the negroes for making soap, and for anointing their bodies, its bitterness protecting them from the bites of insects, a purpose to which the Oil of C. is also applied in South America.These species are very similar, and are supposed by some botanists not to be essentially distinct.

CARAPACE, the dorsal shield or buckler of chelonian reptiles (Tortoises and Turtles), and of the Crustacea Malacostraca (Crabs, Lobsters, &c.). In animals so widely different, however, there is only a general similarity in the appearance of the C., and the purpose which it serves; its organic relations are very different. For notice of these, we refer

to the articles CHELONIA and CRUSTACEA.

CA'RAT, originally, it would seem, the name given to the seeds of the Abyssinian Coral Flower (q. v.) or Coral-tree (Erythrina Abyssinica); but these, which are small, and very equal in size, having been used in weighing gold and precious stones, C. has become the designation of the weight commonly used for weighing precious stones, and particularly diamonds. The seeds of the Carob (q. v.) tree have also been said to be the original C. weights of jewellers but with less probability. Goldsmiths and assayers divide the troy pound, ounce, or any other weight, into 24 parts, and call each a C., as a means of stating the proportion of pure gold contained in any alloy of gold with other metals. Thus, the gold of our coinage and of wedding-rings, which contains of pure gold, is called 22 carats fine,' or 22 C. gold. The lower standard used for watch-cases, &c, which contains of pure gold, is called 18 C., and so on. The C. used in this sense has therefore no absolute weight; it merely denotes a ratio. This, however, is not the case with the C. used for weighing diamonds, which has a fixed weight, equal to 3 troy grains, and is

divided into quarters, or 'C. grains,' eighths, six| teenths, thirty-seconds, and sixty-fourths. These C. grains are thus less than troy grains, and therefore the jeweller has to keep a separate set of diamond weights.

CARAVA'CA, a town of Spain, in the province of Murcia, about 39 miles north-west of the city of that name, is situated on the slope of a hill crowned with a fine old castle. Its principal streets are wide, clean, and well paved; it has a fine church, with a miraculous cross, that is annually taken down and bathed in the waters of the town, to which it is supposed to communicate sanitary properties. It has manufactures of linen and woollen fabrics, soap, paper, leather, &c. Pop. about 10,000.

CARAVAGGIO, a town of Lombardy, Northern Italy, about 24 miles east of Milan. In the principal church are some esteemed paintings by Campi; and C. is also celebrated as the birthplace of the painters, Polidoro Caldara and Michael Angelo Merighi, both surnamed Caravaggio. In the neighbourhood is a sanctuary of the Madonna, built from designs of Pellegrini (1575). Pop. 6200.

At

CARAVAGGIO, MICHAEL ANGELO AMERIGĦI or MERIGHI DA, a celebrated Italian painter, was born 1569, at Caravaggio in Lombardy, Northern Italy. His father, who was a mason, employed him in making paste for the fresco-painters, and in this way the artistic genius of the boy was stirred. After studying the works of the great masters in Milan and Venice, he went to Rome, where he lived for some time in very reduced circumstances. length, a picture of his attracted the notice of Cardinal del Monte, who now patronised the young artist; but the ferocious and quarrelsome character of C. soon involved him in difficulties. Having fled from Rome to Malta on account of manslaughter, he obtained the favour of the grand-master by painting an altar-piece in the church of St. John, and other pictures. His quarrelsome nature soon forced him to flee from Malta; and in making his way back to Rome, he was wounded, lost all his baggage, caught a violent fever, and on reaching Porto Ercole, lay down on a bank and died (1609), at the age of 40. Trueness to nature was the object aimed at by C., who left all schools, and devoted himself to paint life as he found it in lanes, alleys, and other resorts of the lower classes. He studied no such matters as refined sentiment or elevation of realities, but gave in his paintings expression to his own wild and gloomy character. One of his best paintings, The Fraudulent Gamblers,' is preserved in the Sciarra Gallery, at Rome. His shadows are deep, his backgrounds very obscure; in consequence of which the whole picture seems to possess a kind of mysterious greatness, that is very imposing. Even Rubens confessed that C. was his superior in chiaro-oscuro. When he painted on sacred subjects, he remained falsely faithful to the low realities of Italian life; so that several of his pictures painted for churches, had to be removed from their places, because they could not be harmonized with sacred associations. Kugler, the Ger man critic, has justly said of one of C.'s most celebrated works, a 'Burial of Christ,' that it appears like nothing better than the funeral of a gipsy. chieftain.'-An earlier Italian painter of less eminence, POLIDORO CALDARA DA CARAVAGGIO, was born in 1495, and murdered in 1543.

CA'RAVAN (from the Persian karvan, i. e., trader), the name given to the great assemblages of travellers which, at stated times, traverse the deserts of Asia and Africa. Many caravans are entirely for the purposes of trade, the merchants associating themselves for mutual help and protection. A C.

sometimes has so many as 1000 camels, which follow each other in single file, so that it may be a mile or more in length. The most celebrated caravans are those formed by pilgrims going to Mecca, particularly those which annually assemble at Cairo and at Damascus. The latter consists of 30,000 to 50,000 pilgrims, and is under the special protection of the Turkish sultan. It is accompanied by one of the military pashas of Damascus, or one of his principal officers, and usually travels by night only with torches. The caravan by which the Persians travel to Mecca starts from Bagdad, and is the vehicle of a very important trade. The great Indian caravan to Mecca, which started from Muscat, has been long given up. Mecca, upon the arrival of the caravans, bringing goods from so many different parts of the world, presents all the appearance of a vast fair. The trade between Tripoli and the interior of Africa is exclusively carried on by caravans, also that between Darfur and Egypt.

The great trade between Russia and China is likewise a caravan trade. In the East, caravans in which the camels have a load of 500 or 600 pounds are called heavy caravans; light caravans are those in which the camels have only half that weight, so that the daily journeys may be longer. Heavy caravans travel from 17 to 18 miles a day; light from 22 to 25. The caravans are generally conducted with great regularity, and assemble at and start from stated places on stated days. The leader of the Mecca caravans is called Emir-el-Hadech-. e., Prince of the Pilgrims. In trade caravans a leader, who is called Karwan-Baschi, is elected by the merchants from their own number. Among the knights of Malta caravans meant the troops of knights appointed by the order to serve in garrisons, and also the cruises of their galleys against the Turks.

CARAVANCES. See CHICK PEA.

CARAVA'NSARAI, or KHAN, an eastern institution, a sort of unfurnished inn to provide travellers with a shelter. Those in towns and cities, which are generally built for traders, and charged a small sum a day, are handsomer and more convenienthaving doors to the apartments-than those met with on the roads or outside the walls of the cities. They commonly consist of a square building of four wings built round a courtyard, in which the beasts of burden may be enclosed, and where there is usually a well of water; the lodgings are small rooms, about 7 or 8 feet high, which run round the courtyard, and are bare of every article of furDiture.

These caravansarais are an institution of very ancient date, being the 'inns' of Gen. xlii. 27, xliii. 21; and it was in the stable of such a place, there being no room for his parents in the lodging apartments, that our Saviour was born (Luke ii. 7). They belong either to government, to some private individual, or are the property of the church (mosques); those situated in towns or cities are charged, but not more than two or three Turkish piastres a day; those situated on the road are usually free. There are some large and very handsome caravansarais at Cairo, Damascus, Beyrout, Aleppo, &c.

CA'RAWAY (Carum carui), a plant of the natural order Umbelliferæ, growing abundantly in meadows and rich pastures in the middle and south of Europe, and in some parts of Asia, naturalised in many places in Britain. In some parts of Holland and Germany, and also in the counties of Kent and Essex in England, it is extensively cultivated for its aromatic seeds-in more strict botanical language, carpels-which are used medicinally as a carminative and tonic, and are also very much used as an

aromatic condiment, and by confectioners, distillers, and perfumers, entering into the preparation of liqueurs, cakes, sweetmeats, scented soaps, &c. They depend for their aromatic properties on volatile oil, called Oil of C., which is obtained by bruising C. seeds, and distilling them with water, and is at first limpid and colourless, but becomes yellow, and subsequently brown, by keeping. Oil of C. is used medicinally to relieve flatulence, and to correct the nauseating and griping tendencies of some cathartic medicines; also in the preparation of Spirit of C., and C. Water.-Spirit of C., which may be prepared either by dissolving the oil of C. in proof-spirit, or by distilling bruised C. seeds along with proof-spirit, is much used in Russia and Germany as a liqueur (Kümmel-branntwein), sweetened with sugar.-C. has a branching stem 1-2 feet high, with finely divided leaves, and dense umbels of whitish flowers. The fruit is oblong, each carpel having five thread-like ribs, with a single vitta (see UMBELLIFERE) in each of the interstices. The white carrot-shaped root of C. is sometimes used like carrots or parsnips, but has a very strong flavour.-C.

Caraway.

has a great enemy in the CARAWAY MOTH (Hamylis daucella), the larva of which destroys both its stem and flowers.

substance of great importance in dyeing, which is CARBAZOʻTIC ACID, or PI’CRIC ACID, is a obtained by the action of strong nitric acid and heat on many complex organic materials, such as silk, indigo, salicine, and a variety of resins. On a commercial scale, it is best obtained from the oil of tar, which distils over from crude tar between 300° and 400°, or from the resin of Xanthorrhoea hastilis. The hot nitric acid solution is strained from impurities, and on cooling, yellow crystals separate of C. A., which can be purified by washing with cold water. These crystals are readily soluble in alcohol and ether, and dissolve in 80 or 90 times their weight of cold water, yielding a yellow solution, which has a very bitter taste, and stains the skin yellow; and when silk which has been treated with a mordant of alum, or cream of tartar, is immersed in a solution of C. A., it is dyed of a beautiful permanent yellow colour. The bitter taste of C. A. has led to its being fraudulently employed,