CA'STING-VOTE, the vote by which the chairman or president of a meeting is generally empowered to cast the balance on the one side or the other, where the other votes are equally divided. In the House of Commons, the Speaker does not vote at all unless this occurrence takes place. As his position in this respect is felt to be a delicate one for a person whose duty it is to withdraw himself from the contentions of party, it is usual for the Speaker to vote in such a way as to give the House an opportunity of reconsidering its decision. The same rule prevails in select committees. Following a similar rule, the chairman at corporation and general meetings usually gives his casting-vote either in a way that will lead to a reconsideration of the subject, or for what seems the popular view of the case, although that may be at variance with his convictions.

CASTLE (Sax. castel; Lat. castellum, dimin. from castrum), a building constructed for the purpose of repelling attack. The root of the word is the same as that of casa, a little house or hut, and probably means a driving off or repelling; and it is worthy of notice, in confirmation of this view, that in Welsh the radical syllable cas, signifies a C., separated, and also hatred, malice, &c. The castella, left by the Romans in Britain and elsewhere, were constructed on the general model of their stationary encampments (castra stativa), (see CAMP and ENCAMPMENT); and though they may have suggested the castles of the middle ages, they differed from them in being designed for military purposes only, and not also as places of permanent residence. Even Burgh Castle, in Suffolk, the ancient Garamonium, and Richborough Castle, in Kent, the ancient Rutupiæ, were encampments or fortresses, rather than castles. The accompanying ground-plan, taken from Mr. Roach Smith's interesting work on the Antiquities of Richborough and other places in Kent,

A, postern gate; B, decuman gate; C, D, square towers; F, corner of south wall projecting over the cliff; G, return wall overthrown; H, site of tower in north wall; I, surface of subterranean building.

will give a better conception than any mere description of the remains of the most remarkable Roman castellated fort to be found in this country.

Besides these monuments of the military occupation of the island by the Romans, traces are found in various parts of the country of encampments or

castles, which are ascribed to its aboriginal or early inhabitants. These are generally situated on the tops of hills; as, for example, the Herefordshire Beacon, on the Malvern Hills; Moel Arthur, in Flintshire; Chem Castle, in Cornwall; the Maiden Castle, in Dorsetshire; the Caterthuns, near Brechin, in Forfarshire; the Barmkin of Echt, in Aberdeenshire. It is probable that the Saxons adapted the Roman castles to a certain extent to their modes of defence, and traces of Saxon, and even Norman workmanship are found in structures which are

One

believed to have been originally Roman. very frequent change consisted in raising a mound of earth on one side of the walls on which the keep or citadel was erected. The Decuman and Prætorian gates were also, as at Portchester, converted into the fortified entrances peculiar to the castellated structures of the middle ages. But of castles designed for residence as well as defence, there are few or none which are of higher antiquity than the Conquest. They were part of the organisation of the feudal system-castle-guard being one of the duties which the tenants were taken bound to pay in return for their lands; and till that system was developed by the Normans, the residences of persons of importance were probably guarded only by their domestic retainers, or, in extraordinary circumstances, perhaps by the national militia. The absence of strongholds is said to have been a reason why William the Conqueror so easily became master of the kingdom; and it was as a protection against the resentment which the Conquest occasioned, that most of the great Norman castles of England were built. As these castles grew in strength by the additions and improvements of each generation, they afforded their possessors the means not only of security from their fellow-subjects, but of independence as regarded the central government. The lord of every C. became a petty tyrant; and no small portion of the history of England, and, indeed, of Europe altogether, during the feudal period, consists of an account of the attempts which were made by the monarch to extirpate what Matthew Paris has emphatically designated as 'these nests of devils and dens of thieves.' Of castles of this description, it is said that in England, in the reign of Stephen (1135-1154), no fewer than 1115 were built.

The Norman C., which was the most complete structure of the kind, was generally surrounded by a moat or ditch; and in order that the ditch might be readily filled with water, the site chosen was usually either on the banks of a river, or on a peninsula running into a lake. In the latter case, the ditch was of course merely a deep cut made through the neck of land, by means of which the C. and its surroundings were converted into an island. On the inner side of the ditch, mounds

were constructed, which were surmounted with walls and towers, both of which, but particularly the latter, were supplied with battlements and bastions. The entrance-gates were also protected by towers, which were usually of great strength. The communication was by a bridge, sometimes of stone, but usually of wood, which was made to draw up and down; and the entrance, in addition to thick folding-doors, was protected by a Portcullis (q. v.), which was dropped down through grooves in the masonry at the sides. The gateway, in castles of the larger sort, was further defended by a Barbican (q. v.). On passing the external wall, you entered the Bailey (q. v.), which sometimes consisted of several courts, and contained the barracks, magazines, well, a chapel, and sometimes even a monastery. The only portion of the C. which was always spoken of as distinguished from the bailey, was the Keep (q. v.) or citadel, which corresponded to the prætorium of the Roman fortification. The keep was a species of internal C., more strongly defended than any other portion of the fortress, and placed in the most advantageous position, so as to afford a last chance to the garrison when driven from the external works. As the keep had the same design as the C. itself, it contained most of its appliances, even to a chapel, when large and complete. Under the keep was the Dungeon (q. v.). An excellent example of a keep is seen at

the walls of his C. afforded to the retainers of a baron, in a state of society in which life and property were extremely insecure, naturally led to the construction of houses around the moat, and to this. custom a very large number of the towns, both in England and on the continent of Europe, owe their origin. Along the banks of the Rhine, this process of town-formation may be seen in all its earliest stages; from the few peasants' houses and the village church nestling under the ivy-covered ruin on the cliff, to the large and prosperous city of Coblenz. Strange as it may seem, the existence of these castles may be regarded not only as a cause, but as an effect of a certain feeling of security on the part of the surrounding population; for where a country was thoroughly insecure, the risk of the castles falling into the hands of the enemy, and thus proving a source not of protection but of oppression, was so great as to prevent their erection. It is on this ground that Sir Walter Scott explains the slight character of the fortresses on the Scottish border, notwithstanding centuries of warfare. 'It was early discovered that the English surpassed their neighbours in the arts of assaulting and defending fortified places. The policy of the Scotch, therefore, deterred them from erecting upon the borders buildings of such extent and strength, as being once taken by the foe, would have been capable of receiving a permanent garrison. To themselves, the woods and hills of their country were pointed out by the great Bruce as their safest bulwarks; and the maxim of the Douglases, that "it was better to hear the lark sing, than the mouse cheep," was adopted by every border chief.' For these reasons, we do not find, on the Scottish borders, the splendid and extensive castles which graced and defended the opposite frontier. The Gothic grandeur of Alnwick, of Raby, and of Naworth, marks the wealthier and more secure state of the English nobles.' The residence of the Scottish chieftain was commonly a large square battlemented tower, called a keep or peel, placed on a precipice, or on the banks of a torrent, and, if the ground would permit, surrounded by a moat. In short, the situation of a border-house, encompassed by woods, and rendered almost inaccessible by torrents, by rocks and morasses, sufficiently indicated the pursuits and apprehensions of its inhabitants.'Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border, Introduction.

It

CASTLEBA'R, the capital of the county of Mayo, Ireland, 159 miles west-north-west of Dublin. is situated on the Castlebar river, near the head of a valley at the north-west end of the great limestone plain which includes the greater part of the counties of Roscommon, Sligo, Galway, and Mayo. The two main streets cross each other, and the chief buildings are in a square near the west end. The suburbs, as in most of the west Irish towns, consist of the wretched hovels of agricultural labourers. Pop. 3508. C. has some coarse linen manufactures. Here the Irish, in the rebellion of 1641, massacred the English parliamentary army, and in 1786 was executed the famous 'fighting Fitzgerald.' In 1798, the French general, Humbert, held the town for a fortnight. In 1846 and 1847, C. suffered extremely from the famine.

CASTLERE A'GH, LORD. See LONDONDERRY, MARQUIS OF.

CASTLES, in Heraldry, are often given as charges in the shields of persons who have reduced them, or been the first to mount their walls in an assault. The practice of heralds, in this as in other respects, has not been very consistent, as we learn that in 1602, a castle was granted by William Cambden, Clarencieux King of Arms, to William Frear, doctor of physic!

the United States of America, so far north as New Jersey, and in other tropical and warm temperate countries. Although castor oil is chiefly used in medicine, it is not unfit for lamps and for oiling the wheels of machinery. The streets of Lima are lighted, and the machines used in the works of the sugar-plantations of Peru are oiled with it. C. O. is made on a large scale at St. Louis, Mo., from beans grown in Illinois. The annual product has reached nearly 250,000 gallons, most of which was required to supply the home demand.

CASTO REUM, a substance secreted in two glandular sacs, closely connected with, but quite distinct from, the organs of reproduction in the Beaver (q. v.), and at one time held in the highest repute in medicine, although now regarded as almost inert, and chiefly used by perfumers. The C. sacs are pear-shaped, and it appears in commerce in these sacs themselves, connected in pairs as they are taken from the animal. C. is produced both by the male and by the female beaver. In Hudson's Bay commerce, ten pair of them are equal in value to one beaver skin. Russian C. is of much higher value than American. C. was well known to the ancients. From the time of Hippocrates, it was regarded as having a specific influence over the uterus, and is still in use in the north of Europe. It was at one time also esteemed a most valuable medicine in hysteria, catalepsy, and other spasmodic diseases.

CASTO'RIDÆ, a family of Mammalia of the order Rodentia, of which the Beaver (Castor) is the type, and in which, besides the beaver, the Coypu (Myopotamus), and the Musquash, some naturalists include other genera more commonly regarded as belonging to the Mouse and Rat family (Murida), as the Lemmings and Voles.

CASTRAMETA'TION is the art of encamping; and a camp is the result of that art. See CAMP,

ENCAMPMENT.

CASTREN, MATTHIAS ALEXANDER, the greatest authority in regard to the Finnish people and language, was born in 1813, not far from the Lappish boundaries of Finland. He received his earliest instruction in the town of Tornea, and afterwards studied at Helsingfors. About the year 1838, he undertook a pedestrian excursion through Finnish Lapland, in order to extend his knowledge of the language and literature; and, in 1840, another through Carelia, to collect ballads, legends, &c., illustrative of Finnish mythology. On his return, he published in Swedish a trauslation of the famous Finnish poem, Kalevala, the metre and style of which have been imitated by Longfellow in his poem of Hiawatha. Aided by the government of his native province, he commenced his researches among the Finnish, Norwegian, and Russian Laplanders, as also among the European and Siberian Samoyeds. Appointed linguist and ethnographer to the St Petersburg Academy, C., between the years 1845 and 1849, prosecuted his laborious investigations as far east as China, and as far north as the Arctic Ocean. On his return, he was appointed first professor of the Finnish language and literature at the university of Helsingfors. He employed himself in preparing for publication the vast materials which he had collected, but died 7th May 1852, from exhaustion—a martyr to science. Before his death appeared Versuch einer ostjakischen Sprachlehre nebst kurzen Wörterverzeichniss (Petersburg, 1849), as the first instalment of his Northern Travels and Researches. He also wrote Elementa Grammatica Syrjaena (Helsingfors, 1844), and Elementa Grammatica Tscheremissæ (1845); On the Influence of the Accent in the Lappish Language (Petersburg, 1845);

De Affixis Personalibus Linguarum Altaicarum (Helsingfors, 1850), &c.

CASTRES, a town of France, in the department of Tarn, is situated on both sides of the river Agout, 46 miles east of Toulouse. The two parts of the town are united by two stone bridges. In the middle ages, C. was celebrated for its Benedictine abbey, the heads of which exercised a temporal sway over the place. Later, it was one of the strongholds of the reformed party, but it was forced to submit, and had its fortifications demolished in the reign of Louis XIII. C. has beautiful promenades, shaded by fine alleys of trees, and in the neighbourhood is a remarkable rocking-stone, 11 feet high, and weighing some 30 tons. It is of eggshape, and rests upon its smaller end; a strong push is sufficient to cause its vibration. C. is a busy manufacturing place. Its fine wool-dyed goods are especially famous, and it has also manufactures of linen, leather, paper, soap, &c. Pop. (1876) 25,856.

CA'STRI, or KASTRI, a village of modern Greece, in the government of Phocis, situated on the south declivity of Mount Parnassus, and worthy of notice, as occupying a portion of the site of the ancient Delphi (q. v.). The famous Castalian spring, now called the Fountain of St John, is situated between 200 and 300 yards to the east of the village. Beside it grows a plane-tree, the only one in C., which is fabled to be that planted by Agamemnon.

CA'STRO (ancient Mitylene), a seaport town of Asiatic Turkey, capital of the island of Mitylene, situated on the east coast, about 55 miles north-west of Smyrna. It is surrounded with walls, and defended by a castle, and its streets are narrow and dirty. Remains of the ancient town are found to the west. Pop. 6500.

CASTRO, INES DE, whose mournful fate is the subject of several tragedies and poems, was the daughter of Pedro Fernandez de Castro, and sprang from a branch of the royal family of Castile. She was appointed lady-in-waiting to the wife of Dom Pedro, son of Alfonso IV. of Portugal. Her beauty captivated Dom Pedro, and after the death of his wife, in 1345, he secretly married Ines. Their stolen interviews took place in the convent of St Clara, at Coimbra, until the secret was discovered and revealed to the king, who was made to believe that this union might prove injurious to the young Ferdinand, son of Dom Pedro by his de ceased wife. Questioned by his father, Dom Pedro had not the courage to reveal the whole truth, while he refused to marry another. In the king's council, it was determined that Ines must die. To see this sentence executed, the king hastened to Coimbra, while his son, Dom Pedro, was engaged in hunting (1355); but the sight of the beautiful Ines, who, with her children, cast herself at the feet of the king, and prayed for mercy, diverted him for a few moments from his purpose. His advisers, however, soon obtained from the king permission to execute the sentence, and, in the course of an hour after the interview, Ines fell pierced by the daggers of assas sins. Dom Pedro attempted a revolt against his father, but was pacified by the queen and the Archbishop of Braga, and promised not to seek revenge for the death of Ines. Two years afterwards, the king died, having shortly before his death recommended the murderers of Ines to leave Portugal, and seek shelter in Castile, where Peter the Cruel was then ruling. As several of Peter's nobles had escaped into Portugal, to avoid his oppression, he now proposed to Dom Pedro an exchange of fugitives, to which the latter (now king of Portugal) consented. Two of the assassins accordingly were delivered up, and were tortured and burned. Two