been found here.

CE'RVIA, a town of Central Italy, situated on the Adriatic, 13 miles south-south-east of Ravenna. It is regularly built, has a cathedral and several convents; and from a marsh in the neighbourhood about 50,000 tons of salt are annually obtained, the saltworks employing a considerable number of the population, which is about 5000.

CE'RVIDE AND CE'RVUS. See DEER.

CERVIN, MONT (Ger. Matterhorn; Ital. Monte Silvio), a mountain of the Pennine Alps, about 40 miles east-north-east of Mont Blanc, and between the Valais in Switzerland and the Val d'Aosta in Piedmont. Above an unbroken glacier line of 11,000 feet high, it rises in an inaccessible obelisk of rock, more than 3000 feet higher-and is described by the late Professor Forbes as the most striking natural object he had ever seen. The total elevation of the mountain is 14,836 feet. The Col of Mont C., used as a passage for horses and mules in summer, has an elevation of 10,938.

CERVINA'RA, a town of Italy, in the province of Principato Ultra, 12 miles north-west of Avellino. It has a convent and several churches, and a trade in the produce of the district. Pop. 6328.

CE'SARI, GIUSEPPE (sometimes called GIUSEPPINO, or IL CAVALIERE D'ARPINO), an Italian painter, was born at Rome, 1570, and died there in 1640 (or 1642). He was greatly honoured by no less than five popes, and his paintings were always highly popular. His works-in fresco and oil-display lively imagination, gay colouring, and great tact in execution; but are deficient in natural simplicity, correctness of design, symmetry of arrangement, and dignity of style. As he was the most brilliant of the mannerists, he was the chief object of the attacks made by the artistic reformers, Caravaggio, the Caracci, and their followers-who constituted the naturalisti-on the conventional or pseudo-idealistic style of painting.

CESAROTTI, MELCHIORE, an excellent Italian poet, was born at Padua, 15th May 1730, and died 3d November 1808. He gained a reputation by the vigour and originality of his style, especially in his translation of Macpherson's Ossian (2 vols., Padua, 1763). The versification of this work, like that of C.'s free translation of the Iliad, under the title of La Morte di Ettore, was admired by Alfieri. C. unquestionably threw fresh life into Italian literature, but few in this country will consider his enthusiasm very rational, when it could induce him to think poor Macpherson a better poet than Homer. C.'s best work was his Saggio sulla Filosofia delle Lingue (Padua, 1785), written in opposition to the academical pedantry of La Crusca. His prose style is vigorous, but full of innovations, especially Gallicisms.

CESE'NA, a town of Central Italy, about 12 miles south-east of Forli, on the Emilian Way. It is pleasantly situated on a hill-slope, washed by the Savio. Its principal buildings are the Palazzo Pubblico, the Capuchin church, and the library founded by Domenico Malatesta Novello, in 1452, with a rich collection of MSS. There are many monasteries and nunneries, as befits a place that gave birth to two popes-Pius VI. and VII. It has some silk factories, with a trade in wine and silk;

Ital. assessare, to impose a tax.
CESS, probably a corruption for assess, from the
used in England as synonymous with the more
It has long been

modern noun assessment.

Camden, in the time of

Elizabeth, speaks of every man being 'cessed by the pole, man by man, according to the valuation of their goods and lands.' See LAND-TAX.

of goods), a process which the law of Scotland has CE'SSIO BONO'RUM (Lat. cession or surrender borrowed from that of Rome, and which, like many others, is common to it with most of the continental systems. A C. B. may be defined to be an equitable relief from the severity of the earlier laws of imprisonment for debt, granted to a debtor in consideration of a cession of his goods to his creditors. The jurisdiction in cessios formerly belonged exclusively to the Court of Session, but by 6 and 7 Will. IV. c. 56, it was extended to sheriffs. The principal regulations, with reference to this process, at present in force, are the following: Any debtor in prison, or who has been in prison, or even against whom a warrant of imprisonment has been issued, may apply for a Cessio Bonorum. In his petition, he sets forth his inability to pay his debts, and his willingness to surrender his estates, and prays for interim protection. This petition must be intimated the sheriff-clerk a state of his affairs, subscribed by in the Gazette. The bankrupt then lodges with himself, with all the relative books and papers. On a day appointed for the purpose, he is examined before the sheriff on oath; and if his creditors object to the petition, they are heard, and a proof, if neces sary, allowed them. Whatever order the sheriff may pronounce is subject to review by the Court of Session, or a Lord Ordinary in vacation. Cessios originating in the Court of Session are sued out in the form of a summons, by which all the creditors are called as defenders to the action. Any one or more of them may appear; and the pursuer will not be allowed the benefit of the process, till he has satisfied the court that his insolvency has arisen from misfortune, and that his disclosure of the state of his affairs is full and honest. The burden of proving objections to his statements, and to the evidence which he may produce, will be laid on the creditors. If the debtor can find caution (q. v.) to attend all diets when called on, the sheriff or the Court of Session may grant him liberation or protection whilst the process is pending. A decree of C. B. operates as an assignation of the debtor's movable estate in favour of a trustee for behoof of

the creditors.

These trustees, like those in sequestrations, are now placed under the supervision of the Accountant in Bankruptcy. A C. B. differs from a Sequestration (q. v.) in this, that it confers no power on the bankrupt to insist on his discharge, and affords no protection against the attachment of his subsequent acquisitions by his creditors. The tools; but nothing beyond what is necessary for debtor has the privilege of retaining his working officers and clergymen. mere aliment will be allowed, even to half-pay

CE'STIUS, PYRAMID OF, a Roman monument of the Augustan age, situated close to the Porta San Paolo, partly without and partly within the walls of Aurelian. It is known to every English traveller, being in the immediate vicinity of the cemetery where Protestants dying in Rome are buried. The exterior form is perfectly preserved; but of the paintings which formerly decorated the internal walls, only a few traces remain. Several copies of these paintings have been made, of which we may mention those edited by Falconieri, 1661. The

Cysticercus Cellulosa (magnified): a, the head, much magnified.

quite distinct from the C. W., of which they are really the young; and the name scolex, formerly given to one of these supposed genera, has now become a common name for the young of all C. W. in this stage, as larva is the common name for the young of insects in their first stage after being hatched from the egg. Those scolices which inhabit vertebrate animals very generally become distended with a watery fluid, and in this state were formerly regarded as Hydatids (q. v.); little else, indeed, appearing without very careful examination, but a small bag filled with fluid, the scolex head being formed within the bag, although capable of being everted from it, as the finger of a glove which has been drawn in at the end is turned out. Such is the young of the common tape-worm (Tænia solium), formerly known to naturalists as Cysticercus cellulose, and found in the flesh of the pig and of some other animals, and sometimes of man. It is this scolex, existing in great numbers, which produces in the pig the diseased state commonly known as measly; and it is very unsafe even to handle measly pork in a raw state, because a scolex accidentally getting into the mouth, and thence into the stomach, is likely to become a formidable inmate of the intestinal canal. It does not appear that this particular species has the power of multiplying in its scolex state, or the circumstances in which it exists in the flesh of the pig may be unfavourable to its so doing, and the prodigious numbers sometimes existing in a single animal have probably all entered by the mouth in the way already described, the contents of a single proglottis or joint of a tape-worm being perhaps sufficient to account for them; but some scolices, as that called Conurus cerebralis, found in the brain of sheep, and the cause of the disease called staggers-now known to be the scolex of a Tania of the dog-are proliferous by a sort of pullulation, so that clusters of scolices cover the same parental vesicle. Until, however, the scolex reaches the intestine of an animal suited to it, its propagation is entirely unsexual, and no organs of sex exist; but no sooner is it there, than it begins to develop itself into a a cestoid worm, and to produce androgynous joints, fertile of new embryos, as already described. Thus we have in these creatures an instance, in its relations the most important known, of the recently discovered alternation of generations. SEE GENERATIONS, ALTERNATION OF. The transference of the scolex from its place of growth to that in which it becomes a cestoid worm, usually if not always takes place by the animal which contains it being eaten by that whose intestine is suitable to its perfect development. Each kind of cestoid worm is limited to certain kinds of vertebrate animals, and it has been proved by experiment that if introduced into the stomach of other kinds, the scolices soon die. The only C. W. which infest the human species are Bothriocephalus (q. v.) latus, and Tape-worms (q. v.). See Von Siebold's interesting work on Tape and Cystic Worms, printed for the Sydenham Society (London, 1857.)

CESTRA'CION, a genus of sharks, regarded as constituting a distinct family, Cestraciontida, although not more than two species are known as now existing. It is characterised by having two dorsal fins and one anal, the first dorsal situated over the space between the pectorals and ventrals; a spine forming the front of each dorsal; a short

wide tail, with its upper lobe strongly notched beneath; the mouth at the fore-end of the snout; spout-holes distinctly visible, rather behind the eyes; eyes destitute of nictitating membrane; small gillopenings; and the front of the mouth armed with sharp angular teeth, whilst the margins and inner surface of the jaws are covered with pavement-like teeth, presenting a general continuity of surface, as in skates, and disposed in rounded oblique scrollsthe former evidently adapted to the seizing of food, the latter to the crushing and bruising of it. The Port-Jackson Shark or 'Nurse' (C. Philippi) of the Australian seas, and the Cat Shark of Japan and China (C. Zebra), seem to differ chiefly in the patterns of colour. The Cestraciontida are particularly interesting to geologists; for the oldest fossil sharks belong in great part to this family, of which remains are found even in the Palæozoic strata; they become more numerous in the Carboniferous series; they are very numerous in the Lias and Chalk formations; but there they cease almost entirely, the strata of the Tertiary series scarcely containing any of them;' whilst now the species are reduced, as we have seen, to one or two, and other types of shark have become more prevalent.

CE'STRUM, the style or spatula used by the ancients in encaustic painting in wax and ivory. See ENCAUSTIC.

CE'STUI QUE TRUST, a person who possesses the equitable right to deal with property, the legal estate in which is vested in a trustee. There is such a confidence between the cestui que trust and his trustee, that no action at law will lie between them, but they must settle their differences and arrange their disputes in a court of equity. The French phrase, and is so ungainly and ill adapted phrase cestui que trust is a barbarous Norman law to the English idiom, that it is surprising that the good sense of the English legal profession has not long banished it, and substituted some phrase in the English idiom, furnishing an analogous meaning.’ -Wharton's Law Lexicon, p 130.

CE'STUS (Gr. kestos, embroidered), a girdle worn by Greek and Roman women close under the breasts, and so distinguished from the zone, worn round the loins. The C. of Venus was covered with alluring representations, SO that Juno borrowed it when she desired to win the love of Jupiter.-CESTUS-or, more correctly, CESTUS, from the Lat. cædere, to slay-is also the name of the covering for the hands worn by Roman pugilists. It was at first nothing more than a leathern thong or bandage to strengthen the fist; but afterwards it was covered with knots and nails, and loaded with lead and iron, &c., to increase the force of the blow. It was not uncommon for a pugilist armed with the C. to dash out the brains or break the limbs of his antagonist. The Roman pugilist (cæstuarius) was often represented in sculpture.

Roman Cestus.

CETA CEA (Gr. ketos, a whale), an order of Mammalia (q. v.) greatly differing in general form and habits from the rest of that class, so as indeed to be popularly reckoned among fishes. The C. have a fish-like form, terminating in a fish-like tail or tail-fin, which, however, is not vertical, as in fishes, but horizontal, and is the great instrument of progression; being moved by very powerful muscles,

Tail-fin of Whale.

commonly with an oblique downward and lateral movement, like that by which a boat is propelled in sculling, but sometimes by direct upward and downward strokes, when greater velocity is requisite. There are no hinder limbs, and even the pelvis is represented only by two small rudimentary bones, suspended in the soft parts, 80 that the body tapers gradually and uninterruptedly towards the tail. The fore-limbs are exclusively, or almost exclusively, adapted for swimming, their bones, however, appearing in the skeleton as those of a hand, placed at the extremity of an arm, of which the bones are much abbreviated and consolidated, with little power of motion except at the shoulderjoint, and are entirely concealed in the soft parts of the animal. The head is connected with the body without any apparent neck, and the vertebræ of the neck are partly ankylosed or soldered together. The skin is naked, having no general covering of hair, although some of the species possess conspicuous whiskers. The Bones of Fore-limb of Whale. C. agree with quadrupeds, notwithstanding the great differences already indicated, in the most important parts of their organisation. They are viviparous, and suckle their young, for which they exhibit great affection; they are also warm-blooded, breathe by lungs, and not by gills, and come to the surface of the water for the purpose of inhaling air. An approach to their fish-like form is to be seen in Seals (q. v.) and other Phocida (q. v.); in which, however, the hinder limbs are largely, although peculiarly developed, whilst the fish-like tail-fin is wanting; the skin has a covering of hair; and the head and fore-limbs more resemble those of ordinary quadrupeds.

The C. are usually divided into two sectionsthe Herbivorous and the Ordinary C.; but the former, constituting the family of Manatida (q. v.), have recently, by some systematic naturalists, been rejected from this order altogether, and associated with the Pachydermata. They differ very widely from the ordinary or true C., not only in their adaptation for the use of vegetable instead of animal food, which appears both in their dentition and in their digestive apparatus, but also in their pectoral instead of abdominal teats, and in their want of blow-holes and of any provision for retiring to great depths of the ocean, and remaining there for a considerable time, without returning to the surface to breathe.

The ordinary or true C. are divided into the families of Delphinida (Dolphin, Porpoise, Beluga, Narwhal, &c.), Platanistidæ, fresh water Dolphins, etc. Physeteride (Cacholot, or Spermaceti Whale, etc.) and Balanide (Greenland Whale, Rorqual, &c.), the distinguishing characters of which are given under separate heads. They all feed on animal food, some of them pursuing and devouring fishes; others, and these the largest, subsisting chiefly on smaller prey, mollusks, small crustaceans, and even zoophytes, which they strain out of the water by a peculiar apparatus in their mouths. None of the

true C. have molar teeth or grinders like the Manatida; all the teeth which any of them have are conical; but some of the largest are entirely destitute of teeth. The females of all of them have the teats situated far back on the abdomen. The forelimbs of the true C. are mere fins, the slight power of grasping with them, which the Manatida possess, having entirely disappeared. The resemblance to fishes is increased in many of them by the presence of a dorsal fin. There is a wonderful provision to enable them to spend some time under water, before returning again to the surface to breathe-an arterial plexus or prodigious intertwining of branches of arteries, under the pleura and between the ribs, on each side of the spine. This being filled with oxygenated blood, after the animal has spent some time at the surface breathing, the wants of the system are supplied from it, whilst breathing is suspended, so that some whales can remain below even for an hour. The position of the nostrils is remarkable, almost on the very top of the head, so that the animal can breathe as soon as the head comes to the surface of the water; and the nostrils are furnished with a valve of singular but very perfect construction, a sort of conical stopper of fibrous substance, preventing the ingress of water even under the pressure of the greatest depths. The nostrils appear to be little used for the purpose of smelling, the sense of smell being one which these animals either do not possess at all, or in a very imperfect degree; but they are much used, not only for breathing, but also for spouting, or the ejection of water from the mouth, for which reason they are generally called blow-holes

the water being forced through them by the compression of two large pouches or reservoirs which are situated beneath them. This compression is accomplished by an action similar to that of swallowing; the throat, however, not being open, but closed. The height to which the water is thrown into the air is extraordinary, and the spouting of the whale is one of those wonders of the ocean never to be forgotten by those who have seen it.

A peculiarity in the skin of the true C. adapts them for their manner of life. The skin is extremely thick, the inner part of it consisting of elastic fibres interlacing each other in every direction, the interstices of which are filled with oil, forming the substance usually called blubber. The oil deposited in this unusual situation, not only serves the ordinary purposes of fat, but that also of keeping the body warm, which to a warm-blooded animal, continually surrounded with water, is of great importance; whilst the elasticity of this extraordinary skin affords protection in the great depths to which some of the whales descend, and in which the pressure must sometimes amount to a ton on every square inch.

The number of known species of C. is not great, but their natural history has as yet been very imperfectly studied. All of them are large animals, some of them by far the largest that now exist. Almost all of them-both herbivorous and ordinary-are marine, but some of the smaller species ascend large rivers to a great distance from the sea; and one, of the family Delphinida, belongs exclusively to fresh waters, being found only in the upper tributaries of the Amazon and the elevated lakes of Peru.

Fossil Cetacea have been hitherto discovered only in the tertiary formation. Their remains represent species not only belonging to each of the recent families of true C., but have supplied materials for forming a new family intermediate between the true whales and the herbivorous cetacea. These fossils were originally described as reptiles; but they have been satisfactorily shewn to be carnivorous C. by Owen, who, from their remarkable conjugate

CETOTOLITES, a name given by Owen to fossil cetacean teeth and ear-bones, which occur in great abundance in the Red Crag of Suffolk, a member of the Pleiocene period. They are rubbed and water-worn, and have evidently been washed out of some earlier strata, which remain yet unrecognised. The extent of these earlier strata must have been very great, seeing that the remains now extend over a large district in Essex and Suffolk, and attain a thickness, in some places, of not less than 40 feet. Professor Henslow, in 1843, drew the attention of agricultural chemists to this deposit, as a source of materials for manure, and since then superphosphate manures have been manufactured from it to the value of many thousand pounds annually; a striking example of the valuable practical results which frequently flow from a purely scientific discovery.

CETRA'RO, a town of Italy, in the province of Cosenza, situated on the Mediterranean, 24 miles north-west of Cosenza. It has anchovy fisheries, and a population of about 3000.

CETTE, a seaport town of France, in the department of Hérault, is built on a neck of land between the lagoon of Thau and the Mediterranean, in lat. 43° 24' N., long. 3° 42′ E. The town, which is entered by a causeway raised above the Thau lagoon, and a bridge of 52 arches, is fortified, and the harbour is defended by a citadel and forts. The space enclosed by the piers and breakwater forming the harbour is about 30 acres, and has a depth of from 16 to 19 feet. A broad deep canal, lined with excellent quays, connects the port with the Lake of Thau, and so with the Canal du Midi and the Rhone, thus giving to C. an extensive inland traffic; it has likewise an active foreign commerce. The principal trade is in wine, brandy, salt, dyestuffs, perfumery, and verdigris. Other chief imports are wool, cotton, grain, oil, and colonial produce. C. has ship-building yards, and fisheries of oysters and anchovies. Pop. (1876) 28,690.

CEUTA, a town belonging to Spain, situated in the kingdom of Fez, on the north coast of Africa, and opposite to Gibraltar, in lat. 35° 54' N., and long. 5° 16′ W. It is strongly fortified, and defended by a citadel and forts erected on Mount Hacho, the ancient Abyla, or South Pillar of Hercules. It is the most important of the four Spanish presidios, or convict establishments, on this coast. The harbour is small, and not very safe; and the population, stated at 8000 or 10,000, is composed of Spaniards, Moors, Negroes, Mulattoes, and Jews, mostly very poor, and employed in trade and fisheries. Many of the Spaniards living here are state-prisoners, and even the garrison is partly manned by convicts. C., formerly called Septa or Septum, was taken from the Vandals in 534 by Justinian, who fortified the place anew. In 618, it fell into the hands of the Western Goths; afterwards it was taken by the

CEVENNES (ancient Cebenna), the chief mouncontinuations and offsets, it forms the water-shed With its tain-range in the south of France. between the river-systems of the Rhone and the Garonne. Its general direction is from north-east to south-west, commencing at the southern extreunder different local names as far as the Canal du mity of the Lyonnais mountains, and extending Midi, which divides it from the northern slopes of the Pyrenees. The central mass of the C. lies in the departments Lozère and Ardèche, Mont Lozère reaching an elevation of 4884 feet, and Mont Mézen (the culminating point of the chain) an elevation of 5794 feet. The average height is from 3000 to 4000 feet. Their masses consist chiefly of amphibolic rocks, grauwacke, and limestone, covered with tertiary formations, which in many places are interrupted by volcanic rocks.

The C. has been celebrated as the arena of religious warfare. As early as the 12th c., the several sects known by the names, the Poor of Lyon,' the Albigenses (q. v.), and the Waldenses (q. v.), were known and persecuted in this district. After the revocation of the Edict of Nantes by Louis XIV. in 1685, a series of cruel persecutions of the Protestants in the C. began, especially in 1697, after the Peace of Ryswick. 'Dragonnades' (q. v.) were employed to enforce the doctrines of the monks sent as missionaries into the heretical district. All persons suspected of Protestantism met with the most harsh and cruel treatment. Some of the inhabitants emigrated, others fled into the fastnesses of the mountains. Driven to desperation, the persecuted people at length rose to arms, and the murder of the Abbé du Chaila, who was at the head of the dragonnades, gave the signal of a general insurrection in 1702. The insurgent peasants were styled Camisards-possibly from camise, a smock worn by the peasantry. Headed by bold leaders, the most famous of whom were Cavalier and Roland, they defeated the troops sent against them by Louis again and again, until that king thought the insurrection of sufficient importance to require the presence of the distinguished general, Marshal Villars; but he was recalled before the revolt had been put down, and it was left to the Duke of Berwick to extinguish it in blood; the contest terminating in an entire desolation of the province, and the destruction or banishment of a great portion of the inhabitants. The embers of religious hatred still remained glimmering through the following century, and, after the restoration of the Bourbons in 1815, burst Protestants in Nîmes (q. v.) and other places in out into flames in the terrible persecution of the the south of France. See Histoire des Troubles des Cevennes, ou de la Guerre des Camisards (Villefranche, 1760), and Schulz's Geschichte der Camisarden (Weimar, 1790).

CEYLANITE. See SPINEL.

CEYLO'N (the Taprobane of the Greeks and Romans, and the Serendib of the Arabian Nights), a valuable island and British colony in the Indian Ocean, to the south-east of the peninsula of Hindustan, from which it is separated by the Gulf of Manaar and Palk's Strait. Recent observations have shewn its true place to be between 5° 55′ and 9° 51′ N. lat., and 79° 42′ and 81° 55′ E. long. Extreme length from north to south, from Point