CHEETAH-CHEKE.

CHE-KEANG-CHELONIA.

he devoted himself assiduously to the study of or breast-bone, and which are ordinarily nine in Latin and Greek, particularly the latter language, number. So compact and strong is the case of some then much neglected in England. He laboured of the tortoises, that it will bear immense pressure earnestly to advance the study of the Greek without injury, the arched form of the carapace language and literature; and when the first profes- adding to its strength; whilst the creature, destisorship of Greek was founded in Cambridge by tute of other means of defence, and incapable of King Henry VIII., about 1540, C. was appointed flight, finds safety, at least in its mature state, professor. A new mode of pronouncing Greek which from all enemies but man, by drawing its head, he introduced was assailed by Bishop Gardiner, the tail, and limbs within the protecting case, which chancellor of the university; but notwithstanding, in some, called Box-tortoises, has certain plates C.'s system prevailed. C. was for a time preceptor movable, so as more completely to enclose them. of the Prince, afterwards Edward VI., whose eleva- The turtles and other aquatic chelonians cannot thus tion to the throne secured him rank, wealth, and withdraw their head, tail, and limbs from danger, honour. But being a Protestant he was stripped but the greater activity of their movements comof everything when Mary came to the throne, pensates for this. although other lands were given to him on his returning to the Roman Catholic Church, which he did to escape burning, the only alternative offered him by Cardinal Pole. His recantation preyed on his mind so much, that he died in the course of the following year, September, 1557. He left several works in Latin, and a pamphlet in English; and among his MSS. was a translation of the Gospel by Matthew, exemplifying a plan for reforming the English language by eradicating all words save those derived from Saxon roots.

CHE-KEANG, one of the eastern and maritime provinces of China, the smallest of the eighteen. Situated in the southern portion of the great plain, it is possessed of great fertility, and produces silk, tea, and rice in abundance. Its capital, Hangchow, an important and populous city, is the metropolis of the silk districts. Above is Paradise,' say the Chinese; below are Soo-chow and Hang-chow.' Both these places have this year (1860) been taken by the Tae-ping rebels. Ning-po is the principal port of the province. Pop. in 1812, 26,256,784. Area, 39,150 square miles.

CHELICERE, or antennal claws, modified antennæ, which in some of the Crustaceans, and in most of the Arachnida, serve a purpose corresponding with that of the mandibles of insects in the cutting, tearing, or bruising of food. They move, however, up and down, in a direction contrary to

that of the mandibles of insects.

CHELMSFORD, the county town of Essex, near the centre of the county, at the confluence of the Chelmer and the Cann, 29 miles north-east of London. The industry of C. is chiefly agricultural. The town is the seat of assizes and local courts, and has a grammar-school founded by Edward VI. On a small island called Mesopotamia, in the Chelmer, there has long been a ludicrous mock-election of a member of parliament during the county elections. Pop. of C. (1871) 9318.

CHELO'NIA (Gr. chelone, a tortoise), an order of Reptiles, corresponding in extent with the genus Testudo of Linnæus, and of which the most obvious distinguishing character is the enclosure of the whole body in a protective covering connected with the skeleton, so that only the head, the tail, and the limbs are protruded; the limbs being four in number, and all formed on the same plan, in some as feet for walking on dry ground, in others as paddles for swimming. The bony covering consists of two principal parts, called the carapace and the plastron; the carapace serving as a buckler for the upper parts, and the plastron for the under parts of the body. The carapace is formed from the ribs, of which there are eight pair, and from the annular parts of the dorsal vertebræ, expanded into plates, which are joined to each other by dentelated sutures, so that the whole acquires great firmness, and the dorsal vertebræ are rendered immovable. The plastron is formed of pieces which represent the sternum

The firmly fixed ribs not admitting of the movements by which respiration ordinarily takes place in other vertebrate animals, the C. gulp down air, which they inhale entirely through the nostrils; and by the motions of the muscles which occupy the inguinal and axillary cavities between the carapace and plastron, while the diaphragm-like muscles above mentioned contract with the same result. In other respects, as to aeration and circulation of the blood, they resemble other reptiles.

The jaws are not furnished with teeth, but act in a manner more resembling that of the mandibles of birds, being like them hard, sharp, and horny. The food of the C. is various. Some of them, among which are all the land-tortoises, subsist exclusively on vegetable food; some of the aquatic C. pursue and eat other aquatic animals.

All the C. are strictly oviparous. Their eggs are hatched by the heat of the sun alone; they lay a great number at a time, which are covered with a calcareous shell, like those of birds. The eggs of fresh-water tortoises are in some places a lucrative article of commerce, from the quantity of oil which is obtained from them.

the world, but their numbers in some places are The C. are found only in the warmer parts of astonishingly great. None of them can properly be few instances, been found on the British shores. A reckoned British, although stray turtles have, in a few species occur in the southern parts of Europe, and some are found in the temperate parts of North America.

All the species are extremely tenacious of life; they are capable of extraordinary abstinence, and of living long after having sustained injuries which would have been immediately destructive to almost any other animal. They are also remarkable for their longevity.

The flesh of some kinds of turtle is well known as an excellent article of food. The eggs of some are equally an esteemed delicacy. Tortoise shell (q. v.), and the oil already mentioned, are the only other valuable products of the order.

Further information concerning the C. will be found in particular articles devoted to some of the different genera and species. See also Reptiles.

Fossil Chelonia.-Foot-tracks on the Triassic sandstone of Dumfriesshire were referred by their discoverer, Dr. Duncan, to tortoises. Similar tracks have been noticed in Devonian and Oolite strata. Their vagueness, however, does not indicate with any certainty the animals which produced them. The first indisputable evidence of chelonian life occurs in the Upper Oolite, where the remains of several pond-tortoises and two or three turtles have been observed. In the newer deposits, they increase in number, so that between 70 and 80 species have been described from the Tertiary strata. In the Eocene deposits of the London Clay, at the mouth of the Thames, there occur the remains of more species of true turtles, than are now known to exist

CHELSEA-CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE

in the whole world. Some of these fossil C. | rapid increase to its mineral springs, of which there were of a size proportioned to their colossal companions; as, for instance, the gigantic Land Tortoise (Colossochelys) of the Sewalik Hills, whose carapace was as much as 20 feet in length.

CHIE'LSEA, a suburb of London, in Middlesex, on the left bank of the Thames, 44 miles west-southwest of St Paul's. The river is here crossed by a fine iron bridge. Pop. 258,050. Many of the nobility and gentry formerly resided at C., and some of its coffee-houses were much resorted to by pleasureparties in the 17th and 18th centuries. C. has water-works to supply London, a chain-pier, and floor-cloth factories, besides a training-college for male, and another for female teachers, and the Cremorne House Gardens, now a place of public

amusement.

CHELSEA HOSPITAL is an asylum for disabled or superannuated soldiers. The building was commenced in 1609, as a Protestant theological seminary, by Dr. Matthew Sutcliffe, Dean of Exeter; and James I. gave it a charter in 1610, as King James's College. When Sutcliffe died, in 1629, the building was less than half finished, and the students were only 15 in number. Shortly after this, the scheme was abandoned, and the building used for various purposes. It was then rebuilt, and made into an hospital for disabled soldiers by Charles II. By a warrant issued in 1684, one day's pay per year, and two in leap-years, was deducted from soldiers' pay, for supporting Chelsea Hospital. The hospital has accommodation for about 600 persons besides officers. Attached to it are about 40 acres of land, used as garden and exercise ground. It is governed by a Board of Commissioners, comprising ex officio the Lord President of the Council, the First Lord of the Treasury, and the Secretaries of State; but the more immediate management is in the hands of about 120 persons, of whom 20 are military officers, 20 civil officers, and the rest subordinates.

are several varieties. The chief street is upwards of a mile long, right and left of which are spacious and elegant squares and crescents, and innumer able villas lately erected for the accommodation of the numerous visitors. Attached to the spas are handsome pump-rooms-with tasteful grounds, ades among the finest in England, besides many avenues, saloons-lodging-houses, and public promenfine mansions in and around the town. It has 10 churches and a number of dissenting chapels. Of late years, C. has become famous for its public schools, the oldest of which is its endowed grammarschool, capable of educating 300 scholars; but the largest, and now the most celebrated, is its Proprietary College, for the sons of gentlemen, a noble institution, educating, upon an average, 600 pupils. There are also a Ladies' College, a Junior Proprietary School, and a number of private scholastic establishments. There are public assembly-rooms in the town; which is also much resorted to in winter for its hunting. It has two clubs, and five or six weekly newspapers. Pop. 44,519. C. was enfranchised in 1832, and returns one member to parlia ment. Its affairs are managed by a board of elected commissioners, who exercise their authority under the powers of a special act of parliament. It has no manufactures of any importance. British and Roman remains have been found here. C. was only a village in 1716, when the first spring was discovered. It gradually increased till 1788, when the benefit received by George III. from its waters suddenly made it a resort of fashion.

CHE MIC is the name given to BLEACHING POWDER by those engaged in chemical works.

CHEMICAL NOMENCLA'TURE AND NOTA'

TION. (During the progress of the Encyclopædia the nomenclature and notation of chemistry were greatly changed; and an account of the new system was given in the SUPPLEMENT in Vol. X. The folThe establishment is maintained for the in- of notation.) lowing, as will be seen, relates to the old method In early times, chemical substances pensioners of the British army, who, in the Army were named according to the fanciful theories of Estimates for 1873-1874, are set down at 538. These alchemy (q. v.). Thus the name flowers of sulphur in-pensioners, besides board, lodging, clothing, wash- was applied to the sublimed sulphur, which grew or ing, medical aid, &c., receive a small sum in money, sprang like a flower from sulphur when heated; varying from 5s. 3d. per week for a colour-sergeant, spirit of salt, to hydrochloric acid, the corrosive acid down to 7d. per week for a private soldier. They or spirit obtained from common salt; and a multiare all dressed in uniform-red, with blue facings-tude of other names had a like fanciful origin. In and are treated as a garrison, in respect to guards, 1787, Lavoisier founded the system of nomenclature sentinels, &c. Most of the pensioners have belonged which is followed still by chemists. At first, it to the household troops, or Guards. There is a was intended that the names of simple as well as certain degree of choice open to the men, as to compound substances should be regulated by system. whether they will be in or out pensioners. The out- Hence such terms as oxygen (from oxus, acid, and pensioners, who are more than a hundredfold as gennao, to produce), the acid-producer, given from numerous as the others, receive sums of money vary- the notion then held that no acid was without ing from 14d. to 38. 74d. per day for life, as a reward oxygen; and hydrogen (from hydor, water, and for past services. gennao), the water-producer, from the supposition Vacancies in the hospital are filled up once a quar-that hydrogen had more to do with the formater; and every person admitted must give up his out- tion of water than any other element. The advance pension before he can become an in-pensioner. The of chemistry, however, has so completely changed cost of maintaining the hospital was £29,731 for the opinion of chemists regarding the simpler 1873-1874. This was exclusive of out-pension charges. Doubts have frequently been expressed as to the usefulness of this expenditure; it is exceptional in its character, and the arrangement to which it refers is not in much favour among the

Boldiery.

bodies, that such names are now found to mislead; and thereafter, though such as had been given on this system were retained, their meaning has been discarded, and the systematised nomenclature restricted to compound substances. A remnant of the system, however, still subsists at CHELTENHAM, a town, parliamentary the present time, in making the scientific names of borough, and fashionable watering-place, in the all the metals end in um. In the non-metallie county of Gloucester, eight miles north-east of elements, a close analogy exists between chlorine, Gloucester. It lies in a picturesque and healthy bromine, iodine, and fluorine; and to indicate this, valley on the Chelt, a small stream which rises in the common termination ine has been given; and the adjacent hills, and flows into the Severn. It is sheltered on the east and south-east by a semicircle of the Cotswolds. It owes its celebrity and

for a similar reason, carbon, silicon, and boron, end in on. As a general rule, however, the chemical name of an elementary substance does not convey

CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE.

H, one equivalent, or one part by weight, of hydrogen. The combination of two elements was represented by placing the symbols for those elements side by side; thus HO signified one equivalent of hydrogen and one equivalent of oxygen in a state of chemical combination (viz., water); and NaCl, one equivalent of sodium (Lat. natron), united with one equivalent of chlorine (viz., common salt).

any scientific meaning, and must be regarded | ployed in the following manner: Thus ( signified as a simple mark or designation, analogous to the one equivalent, or eight parts by weight, of oxygen; names of persons, which give no notion regarding C, one equivalent, or six parts by weight, of carbon; their moral character or physical development. The ancient and more common metals retain their popular titles, such as gold, silver, and copper; but the more recently discovered metals have names given which end in um. The symbol of an element is obtained from the first letter of its Latin or its Greek name, as Pl for lead (Lat. plumbum). When the names of two or more elements commence with the same letter, a smaller letter or satellite is attached to one or more of these; such as S for sulphur, Se for selenium, and Si for silicon. For a complete table of the symbols of the elementary substances, see ATOMIC WEIGHTS.

The name of a compound substance generally indicates the elements of which it is composed. Thus the name oxide of iron indicates that the red powder (rust) is made up of oxygen and iron; the sulphuret of lead (galena), that it is composed of sulphur and lead. In the simplest combinations

When two elements combine with each other in more than one proportion or equivalent (see ATOMIC THEORY and ATOMIC WEIGHTS), the names of the compound bodies are contrived so as to express this. The term protoxide is applied to a compound of one equivalent of oxygen with one equivalent of another element; deutoxide to a compound containing a larger proportion of oxygen than the protoxide; and tritoxide when the oxygen is still further increased. The term binoxide is used when oxygen is present in the proportion of two equivalents to one equivalent of the other element; and teroxide when the proportion is as three to one. A suboxide contains less than one equivalent of oxygen; and a peroxide is the highest oxide not possessing acid properties. The same prefixes are applied to the compounds of chlorine, sulphur, &c.

When two or more equivalents of one element unite with one or more equivalents of another element, the number of such equivalents is signified by a small figure being placed immediately after the symbol of the element so multiplied. Thus HO, formerly represented one equivalent of hydrogen in combination with two equivalents of oxygen (peroxide of hydrogen); MnO2, one equivalent of manganese with two of oxygen (black oxide of manganese). FeO was two equivalents of iron with three equivalents of oxygen (rust); and Pb30, was three equivalents of lead with four equivalents of oxygen (red lead).

In expressing the formula of a compound substance, the symbol of the metal or its analogue is placed first in order, and is succeeded by the oxygen, chlorine, or similar element. Thus, the symbol for the chloride of mercury was always written HgCl, never CIHg. The same order is carried out in the construction of the formula of more complex substances; the metallic half is placed first. Thus, sulphate of iron-containing sulphuric acid and the Oxide of iron-should be expressed as FeO,SO,, never SO FeO. In other words, the symbols are written in the order in which the substances would be named in

Latin.

In the construction of the formulas of complex substances, the comma (,) and plus sign (+) are often introduced, the former to separate the symbols of substances which are closely united together, and the latter to form a line of demarkation where the components are less intimately combined. Thus, FeO,SO,+KO,SOs represented the compound of the sulphate of iron with the sulphate of potash; KCI PtCl, the double chloride of potassium and pla

tinum.

Large figures placed at the left hand of a formula multiply all the symbols till a comma or plus sign When one element combines with another to appears. Thus, 3SO, represented three equivalents produce several compounds possessing acid properties, of sulphuric acid; 3PhO,A three equivalents of oxide various terminations are employed to distinguish of lead, and one equivalent of acetic acid; and the compounds. Thus, oxygen combines with a nuin- KO,SO3+Al2O3,3SO3+24HO (alum) was one equiv. ber of the elements to produce with each a series of alent of the sulphate of potash with one equivalent acid compounds, the more highly oxidised of which of the sulphate of alumina, and 24 equivalents of receive the termination ic, whilst those containing When a compound substance requires to be less oxygen end in ous. Thus, sulphuric acid conmultiplied it is enclosed within parentheses, and a tains three equivalents of oxygen to one equivalent large figure placed immediately before it. Thus, of sulphur; and sulphurous acid, two equivalents 3(0,C2O3)+Fe2O3,3C2O3+6HO represented three of oxygen with one equivalent of sulphur. These equivalents of oxalate of potash, one equivalent of terminations are qualified by the use of the prefixes oxalate of iron, and six equivalents of water, by the hypo (under) and hyper (over). Thus hyposulphuric old notation.

water.

acid is applied to a compound containing less oxygen In expressing the formulas of organic compounds, than the sulphuric acid, and hyposulphurous to one the symbols are written in the following order: with less oxygen than sulphurous acid. CHNO. Thus, turpentine was CH, alcohol was C4H6O2, and morphia, Cз4H19NO.

Arbitrary symbols are occasionally used to represent important complex substances. Cyanogen is known as Cy; the organic acids are recognized by their initial letter with the sign (—) drawn above, as T for tartaric acid, C8H4010; A for acetic acid, CH,O,; and Ō for oxalic acid, C,

When acids combine with bases or metallic oxides to form salts, they produce compounds, the names of which are influenced by the terminations of the acids. Thus, sulphuric acid and soda form the sulphate of soda; sulphurous acid and soda, the sulphite of soda; and hyposulphurous acid and soda, the hyposulphite of soda. In the same manner, nitric acid with potash forms the nitrate of potash, while the alkaloids are represented by their in tal whilst nitrous acid and potash produce the nitrite of potash.

+

By the old method of notation, symbols were em-letter or letters with the sign (+) above; thus, Sr

CHEMISTRY-CHEMISTS AND DRUGGISTS.