alpenstock has to be learned like that of the oar or the cricket bat-by practice. The most efficient plan, after all, of guarding against the real dangers of the Alps, consists in employing only thoroughly competent and trustworthy guides; yet it must be borne in mind that guiding too is an art, and it by no means follows because a man is an expert climber, that he is fit to take charge of a party. Though much has been done to raise the standard of guides, and to insure that only thoroughly reliable men shall be qualified to act as such, there is still room for great improvement. The temptation to adopt a comparatively lucrative profession is a great one for the peasants, and notwithstanding all rules and regulations, there are many so-called guides on the registers who are by no means perfectly reliable. Such men, under ordinary conditions, may get through their work well enough, but it is only under specially trying conditions that the first-rate guide shows his value. In selecting guides for difficult expeditions, the advice of competent judges should always be taken.

The idea of founding the Alpine Club originated with Mr William Mathews. The Alpine Journal, by members of the club, published quarterly, began in 1863. Members are elected by ballot, if their qualifications, whether climbing, literary, artistic, or scientific, have been previously approved by the committee. Among the more famous first ascents made by members of the Alpine Club may be mentioned those of the Matterhorn (Whymper, 1865); the Schreckhorn (Stephen, 1861); Elbruz in the Caucasus (Freshfield, Grove, 1868, 1874); Cotopaxi and Chimborazo in the Andes (Whymper, 1880); Mount Cook, New Zealand (Green, 1882). An Austrian Alpine Club was founded in 1862; and was followed by Swiss (1863), Italian (1863), and German associations (1869), counting their members by thousands. The German and Austrian societies united in 1874, and had in 1895 about 30,000 members. Climbing is not the sole or main purpose of the continental associations; they devote themselves largely to the scientific investigation of the Alpine area. Mountaineering clubs exist in other mountain regions; thus there is in Boston, U.S., an Appalachian Mountain Club,' and there are some local clubs in Scotland.

See Ball's Alpine Guide (Eastern Alps, 1868; Central Alps, 1870; Western Alps, 1870); books by Tyndall (q.v.) and Whymper (q.v.); the Badminton book on Mountaineering, by the present writer and others (1892); and Sir W. M. Conway, The Alps from End to End (1895). Alpine Plants, a name given not only to plants found at elevations approaching the limit of perpetual snow in the Alps, but also to plants belonging to other mountainous regions in any part of the world, whose natural place of growth is near snows that are never melted even by the beams of the summer's sun. As the elevation of the snow-line, however, varies very much in different countries, according to the latitude, and also from peculiar local circumstances, the term Alpine Plants is not so much significant of the actual elevation of the habitat, as of the average temperature which prevails there. On the Andes, near the equator, at an elevation of 12,000 to 15,000 feet above the level of the sea, many kinds of plants are found, of humble growth, resembling in their general appearance those which occur in Germany and Switzerland at an elevation of 6000 feet; and these again either resemble, or are even identical with, the species which in Lapland grow upon hills of very little elevation, or which, in the northern parts of Siberia, are found at the level of the sea. Similar plants occur also in the Himalaya Mountains, at elevations varying remarkably within very narrow geographical limits from local causes, which also create great differences in the general dryness

ALPINE PLANTS

or humidity of the atmosphere. The laws of this natural distribution of plants have been in our own day for the first time investigated and elucidated by Humboldt, Wahlenberg, Schouw, De Candolle, and others, and form the most essential part of a branch of science still in its infancy-phytogeography (see GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION). When the alpine plants of Central Europe are spoken of, those are meant which grow at an average height of 6000 feet, marking what, in the language of distributional science, is called the alpine zone. This, on its northern limit, the Riesengebirge, falls as low as 4000 feet, and rises, in the southern Alps and Pyrenees, to an elevation of 9000 feet, and sometimes even above it. Although very rich in forms peculiarly its own, this zone contains many plants which are likewise found on much lower hills, and even in the plains. The number of these, however, diminishes as the elevation increases. Hence the small spaces clear of snow in the highest regions possess a very charac teristic flora, the plants of which are distinguished by a very low diminutive habit, and an inclination to form a thick turf, frequently, also, by a covering of woolly hairs, whilst their stems are very often either partly or altogether woody, and their flowers are in proportion remarkably large, of brilliant colours, and in many instances very odoriferous, upon which accounts they remarkably attract and please the occasional visitors from the plains. In the Alps of Central Europe, the eye is at once caught by gentians, saxifrages, rhododendrons, and various species of primrose, as well as by the rarer edelweiss-Gnaphalium (Leontopodium) alpinum. With these and other phanerogamous plants are associated a number of delicate ferns and exceedingly beautiful mosses. The highest mountains in Scotland exhibit a somewhat similar flora, and beautiful plants, both phanerogamous and cryptogamous, are found on them, which never appear in lower situations, as the Alpine Speedwell (Veronica alpina), the small Alpine Gentian (Gentiana nivalis), the Rock Scorpion Grass, or Alpine Forget-me-not (Myosotis alpestris), Azalea procumbens, Woodsia ilvensis and hyperborea, &c. Many alpine plants are limited to a very small district. Thus, the flora of Switzerland differs considerably from that of Germany, the latter being now known to contain 3400 phanerogamous plants, of which the former contains 2200, and along with them also 126 species which have hitherto been found only in the Swiss Alps.There are, moreover, particular species of plants which are found only in single localities, as Hypericum coris, upon the Wiggis Mountains in the canton of Glarus; Wulfenia carinthiaca, upon the Küweger Alp, in Upper Carinthia; and many others. There are, however, many species which, occurring on the mountains of Central Europe, appear also in those of Britain and Scandinavia at lower altitudes, but are not found in the intervening plains. The colonies of alpine plants on mountainous regions are the survivors of the widespread arctic-alpine flora of glacial periods, which saved themselves in low latitudes by retreating to the heights upon the disappearance of cold climatic conditions from the low grounds.-Cryptogamie plants are generally found in alpine regions

in

much greater abundance than elsewhere. Their great beauty, even when dried, makes them favourites with those plant-collectors who have amusement more in view than the mere

interests of science. Small herbaria of them are offered for sale everywhere in Switzerland; and in some places large collections have been prepared and thrown open to the public. The introduction of alpine plants into our gardens was formerly attended with difficulty, and success in establishing

sketched: (1) In the basin of the Rhine there is the Rhine itself, which partly forms the Lake of Constance, at the north-eastern extremity of Switzerland, and receives on the left the important tributaries of the Thun and the Aar; the latter of which flows through Lakes Brienz and Thun, and is itself augmented by various affluents, the largest of which are the Reuss and the Limmat. (2) In the basin of the Danube there flow from the south the Iller, Lech, Isar, and the Inn. Still farther east, the Danube has for its tributaries the Traun, the Ens, the Raab, the Drave, and the Save, the last three of which have their sources in the extreme Eastern Alps. (3) In the basin of the Po, there

are numerous streams which rise in the Southern Alps; the principal of these are the Dora Baltea, the Ticino from Lake Maggiore, the Mincio from Lake Garda, and the Adige. (4) In the basin of the Rhone, there are the Rhone (flowing through the Lake of Geneva), and various Alpine tributaries, the most important of which are the Arve, the Isère, and the Durance. (5) The Var is the principal Ligurian coast-stream; the Piave, and the Tagliamento, the largest of those which fall into the Adriatic from the Southern Alps.

Divisions. In order to give a clear view of the manifold ranges of this mountain-land, a distinction is generally made between the East, the West, and

ALPINE PLANTS

them was limited; but thanks to improved facilities in travelling, the extension of rapid means of communication, and, above all, to the dissemination of correct views of the requirements of these beautiful wildings under cultivation, there is now nothing to prevent our having the alpine flora of the world well and fully illustrated in our gardens. In fact, the progress that has been made, since about 1870, in introducing and successfully establishing species that were prior to that time considered incapable of existing out of their own peculiar habitats, is perhaps the most remarkable achievement of modern gardening art. The specially important collections in our leading botanical gardens are becoming yearly more rich in new species, by importation from their native wilds; and many of those that have been some time under cultivation, are developing varieties with distinctive characteristics of feature and constitution-a sure sign that the plants are tractable and amenable to the circumstances of cultivation. The number of private collections of alpine plants in England has greatly increased also within the past few years, and nurserymen are devoting more attention to their culture, showing that taste in flower-gardening is strongly tending in a more intellectual and satisfying direction, to all who take an interest in the art. The rich variety in colour and form, and the strongly-marked individuality that may be introduced into every flower-garden by employing freely these lowly but brilliant inhabitants of alpine regions in its embellishment, will mark a new era in English flower-gardening. Many alpine flowers, especially edelweiss and the alpine rose, threaten to become extinct in their native haunts, and in 1887 the government of Valais made inclosures for the protection and cultivation

of these plants. See Sutherland's Alpine and
Herbaceous Plants; Robinson's Alpine Plants;
Hartinger's Atlas der Alpenflora (4 vols. 1882).
Alpini. See BERSAGLIERI.
Alpin'ia. See GALANGALE.

Alpnach, or ALPNACHT, a Swiss village, in the canton of Unterwalden, at the foot of Mount Pilatus, 1 miles from that part of Lake Lucerne called Lake Alpnach. It is known principally on account of its celebrated 'slide,' now disused, which was 8 miles long, and by means of which timber was brought from the forests of Mount Pilatus to

the village. Pop. 1679.

Alps (possibly a Celtic word meaning 'high;' cf. Gaelic alp, a high mountain;' or connected with Lat. albus, white'), the most extensive system of lofty mountains in Europe, raising their giant masses on a basis of 90,000 sq. m., between 6° 40' and 18° E. long., and extending in some places from the 44th to the 48th parallel of latitude. The Alpine system is bounded on the N. by the hilly ground of Switzerland and the upper plain of the Danube; on the E., by the low plains of Austria; on the S., by the Adriatic Sea, the plains of Lombardy, and the Gulf of Genoa; and on the W., by the plains of Provence and the valley of the Rhone. A string of lakes encircles both the northern and southern bases of these mountains, the former at an elevation of 1200 to 2000 feet; the latter, 600 to 700 feet. The varied natural scenery of France, Italy, Germany, and Austria has a common centre of union in this lofty region. Valleys open out in all directions, sending their melted snows on one side into the North Sea, on another into the Black Sea, and on another into the Mediterranean. The water-system of the Alps may be thus briefly

the Middle Alps; the last of which is again divided into a northern, central, and southern chain; while a natural separation by river-valleys into groups is also made. I. WEST ALPS.-The principal ranges of these are: (1) The Maritime Alps, extending from the middle Durance southwards to the Mediterranean, and rising in the Aiguille de Chambeyron to a height of 11,155 feet. (2) The Cottian Alps, north of these, whose highest summit, Monte Viso, is 12,605 feet. (3) The Dauphiné Alps, separated by the valley of the Durance from the Cottian; their highest summit is the Pic des Ecrins, 13,462 feet. (4) The Graian Alps, forming the boundary between Savoy and Piedmont, and attaining in the Grand Paradis, an elevation of 13,300 feet. II. MIDDLE ALPS. Central Chain.-(1) The Pennine Alps, between the plains of Lombardy and the valley of the Rhone. Highest summits: Mont Blanc, 15,732 feet; Monte Rosa, 15,151 feet. (2) The Lepontian or Helvetian Alps, from the depression of the Simplon, along the plateau and masses of St Gothard, to the pass of Mont Splügen. (3) The Rhætian Alps, beween the Inn, the Adda, and the Upper Adige. Northern Chain.-(1) The Bernese Alps, between the Rhone and the Aar. Highest summits Finsteraarhorn, 14,026 feet; Aletschhorn, 13,803; Jungfrau, 13,671 feet. (2) The Alps of the Four Forest Cantons,' the Schwyz Alps, &c. The Southern Chain.—(1) The Ortler Alps, between the Adda and the Adige. (2) The Trientine Alps, between the Adige and the Piave. III. EAST ALPS. The principal chains of these are: (1) The Noric Alps, between the plains of the Drave and the Danube. (2) The Carnian Alps, between the Drave and the Save. (3) The Julian Alps, between the Save and the Adriatic Sea.

A comprehensive classification leads to a division of the elevations into three regions: (1) The lower range forming the buttresses of the main masses, and reaching a height of 2500 to 6000 feet; that is, to the extreme limit of the growth of wood. (2) The middle zone lying between the former limit and the snow-line, at the elevation of 8000 to 9000 feet. (3) The high Alps, rising to 15,732 feet. The middle zone forms the region of mountain-pasturages, where the characteristic Alpine dairy-farming is carried on. These pastures consist of a rich carpet of grass and flowers. This threefold division of heights, however, does not everywhere coincide with the same phenomena of vegetation: the line of perpetual snow descends lower on the north side, and the boundaries of the zones above described vary accordingly. (1) The line of demarcation between the region of mosses and alpine plants and that of perpetual snow, is from 8000 to 9000 feet on the northern declivities; but on the southern, it approaches 10,000 feet. (2) The highest limit to which wood attains on the north is about 6000 feet, while on the south it is nearly 7000 feet. (3) Grain, beech, and oak, on the north, disappear at the elevation of 4000 feet; on the south, they contrive to exist some hundreds of feet higher. (4) The region of the vine, as well as of maize and chestnuts, extends to an elevation of 1900 feet on the northern declivity; and on the southern declivity to 2500 feet. The ranges of outlying lower mountains which flank the high central Alps on the north, east, and west, are mostly wanting on the south, especially where the Middle Alps descend into the plains of Lombardy. Thus the Alps rise in steep rocky precipices from the level of the flat plains of the Po, whilst they sink more gradually into the plains on the north; hence their mighty masses, closely piled together, present an aspect from the south more grand and awful; from the north, more extended and various.

Valleys. The depth of the valleys, and their variety as to form and arrangement, are not less

striking than their elevations. Most worthy of notice is the characteristic form of the wide longitudinal valleys that lie at the foot of the high central chains. On the east side, they open directly into the plain; on the north, they are connected with the plain through transverse valleys which often end in lakes. The transverse valleys on the south side are mostly in the shape of steep rocky ravines, forming in some parts long-stretching lakes. Besides the deep-sunk principal valleys, there are extensive series of basin-shaped secondary valleys, which are the scenes of Alpine life, properly so called. Many of the Alpine valleys have names distinct from the rivers flowing through them. Thus, the valley of the Rhone is styled the Upper and Lower Valais; that of the Adda, the Valteline; of the Arve, Chamounix.

Communications-Passes.-The valleys of the high Alps form the natural means of communication. Some are more accessible than others. The entrance into a longitudinal valley is almost always smooth and easy; art has often had to force an entrance into a transverse valley. On many of the highroads which link the principal with the secondary valleys, it has been found necessary to blow up long ridges of rock, to build terraces, to make stone bridges and long galleries of rock as a protection against avalanches, as well as to erect places of shelter (hospices) from storms. The construction of these roads may be reckoned among the boldest and most skilful works of man. In crossing the Alps, several defiles (usually seven) have to be traversed; for in addition to the pass of the main crest, there are other defiles on both sides, at the entrances of the different valleys. In the east, the number of these narrow passes or defiles is considerably increased. The names applied to the Alpine passes vary according to their natural features or the local dialect; as Pass, Sattel (Saddle), Joch (Yoke), Scheideck, Klause, Col, Chiusa. The traveller, in the course of a day's journey, experiences a succession of climatic changes, which is accompanied with an equal variety in the manners of the people.

No lofty mountains in the world are more easily crossed than the Alps; of late years the Mont Cenis, the Brenner, and the St Gothard railways into Italy from the north afford special facilities. Hence we can understand how the plains of Upper Italy, accessible from the French, German, and Austrian sides, have for ages been the theatre of bloody strife. The passage of the WEST ALPS is made by five principal roads: (1) The military road, La Corniche, a coast-road at the foot of the Alps from Nice to Genoa, parallel to which a railway now runs. (2) The causeway over the Col-diTenda, between Nice and Coni, made in 1778; highest point, 6158 feet. (3) The high-road over Mont Genèvre, connecting Provence and Dauphiné with Turin; highest point, 6102 feet. (4) The carriage-road made by Napoleon in 1805, over Mont Cenis, connecting Savoy with Piedmont; highest point, 6848 feet. Near this the chain is pierced by the railway tunnel opened in 1871 (see TUNNEL, and CENIS). (5) The pass of the Little St Bernard, connecting Geneva, Savoy, and Piedmont; highest point, 7190 feet. Besides these great roads, there are many smaller ones branching off from them, which form a pretty close network of communication. It has been debated whether Hannibal crossed the Cottian Alps by the Cenis, or the Graian by the Little St Bernard. The passage of the MIDDLE ALPS is made by eight principal roads. (1) That of the Great St Bernard, connecting the valley of the Rhone with Piedmont; highest point, 8120 feet. It was crossed by Napoleon in 1800. (2) The magnificent road over the Simplon, constructed by Napoleon, 1801–6,

ALPINE VIEW FROM NEAR THE HEIGHTS OF ST. JUSTIN-DIE AND THE ROUMEYER VALLEY.

Vol. I., page 194.