The town was now given to the Knights of the Order of St John, who kept it by constant fighting for a hundred years. In 1517 it was captured by the Turks; in 1799 it was besieged by the French for sixty-one days, but was successfully defended by the garrison, aided by a body of English sailors and marines under Sir Sidney Smith. In 1832 it was stormed by Ibrahim Pacha, son of the viceroy of Egypt, and continued in his possession till it was bombarded and taken, in 1840, by a combined English, Austrian, and Turkish fleet.

Acri, a town of South Italy, 13 miles NE. of Cosenza. Pop. 5000.

Acrobat, a word derived from the Greek, and nearly synonymous with rope-dancer. It literally signifies one who walks on tiptoe (akron, 'extremity,' and baino, 'I go'); and is employed to designate those who perform difficult feats, vaulting, sliding, tumbling, and dancing on a slack or tight rope, stretched either horizontally or obliquely. These feats require great skill, suppleness, and steadiness. For a long time, acrobats were contented to divert and astonish only children or the most ignorant of the populace; but the extraordinary skill of some recent performers has given this perilous art a great celebrity. Within the 19th century, Farioso, Madame Saqui, and Signor Diavolo have excited admiration by their marvellous agility; Blondin was even more widely known. The acrobats of antiquity appear to have closely resembled those of our own day.

Acroceraunia, a promontory in the NW. of Epirus, jutting out into the Ionian Sea, the termination of the Montes Ceraunii. This range derived its name from the frequent thunder-storms which occurred among its peaks (Gr. keraunos, 'thunder'). The coast of the Acroceraunia was dangerous to ships, hence Horace in a well-known ode speaks of its ill-famed rocks.' Its mountains are alluded to by Shelley in his poem Arethusa.

Acrogens (Gr., summit-growers'), a term applied to the higher cryptogamic plants in which root, stem, and leaf are usually distinctly developed-e.g. ferns, club-mosses, horsetails, &c. The name refers to the structure and growth of the stem in which the vascular bundles when present are simultaneous' (see STEM) in development, and growth occurs only at the apex, while increase in thickness is effected by the coherence of leafbases or the formation of roots. Of this 'acrogenous' growth, tree-ferns are the best examples. The term has, however, fallen into disuse, along with the terms Exogens and Endogens, on account of the erroneous views of dicotyledonous and monocotyledonous stem-growth which these latter respectively imply.

Acrolein, C,H,COH, is a colourless, limpid, strongly refracting liquid, lighter than water, and having its boiling-point at about 126 F. (52.4° C.). It constitutes the acrid principle produced by the destructive distillation of fatty bodies, and is in part due to the decomposition of glycerine. It is best prepared by distilling a mixture of glycerine and anhydrous phosphoric acid, the object of the latter being to effect the removal of the element of four atoms of water from the glycerine, CH.03, which contains the elements of acrolein, C,H,COH, + those of two molecules of water, 2H,O. In its state of vapour, it is extremely irritating to the eyes, nostrils, and respiratory organs-a property to which it owes its name. The pungent smell given off by the smouldering wick of a candle just blown out is due to the presence of acrolein. When mixed with a solution of potash or soda, the irritating odour disappears, and is replaced by an odour of cinnamon, while a brown resinous substance is formed; and certain oxidising agents,

ACROSTIC

as oxide of silver, convert it into acrylic acid, C,H,COOH.

Acroliths (Gr. akron, 'extremity,' and lithos, ' a stone'), the name given to the oldest works of Greek plastic art, in which wood-carving is seen in transition into marble statuary. The trunk of the figure is still, in the old style, of wood, covered with gilding or with actual cloth drapery; but the extremities-head, arms, feet-which are meant to appear naked from below the drapery, are of stone. Compare the chryselephantine statues.

Acropolis, the high-town,' was, in many of the important cities of Greece and Asia Minor, the name of the citadel. It usually occupied the summit of a rock or hill, and was fortified, commanding the city and its environs. It contained some of the most important public buildings, especially temples, besides affording a last refuge in case of a hostile attack. The acropolis, like the castle of the middle ages, formed the centre or nucleus around which the town gradually grew. Notable amongst these old Greek strongholds were the Acropolis of Argos; that of Messene; that of Thebes, called Cadmea; that of Corinth, known as Acro-Corinthus; but especially that of Athens, which was styled pre-eminently the Acropolis, and contained the Parthenon, the Erechtheum, and other famous buildings. See ATHENS.

Acrostic (Gr., made up of akros, 'pointed, first,' and stichos, a row'), a term for a number of verses the first letters of which follow some predetermined order, usually forming a word-most commonly a name-or a phrase or sentence. Sometimes the final letters spell words as well as the initial, and the peculiarity will even run down the middle of the poem like a seam. Sir John Davies composed twenty-six Hymns to Astrea (Queen Elizabeth), in every one of which the initial letters of the lines form the words ELISABETHA REGINA. The following is one of the twenty-six :

E v'ry night from ev'n to morn,
Love's chorister amid the thorn
I s now so sweet a singer;
So sweet, as for her song I scorn
A pollo's voice and finger.

But, nightingale, sith you delight
E ver to watch the starry night,
Tell all the stars of heaven,
Heaven never had a star so bright
As now to earth is given.

Royal Astrea makes our day
E ternal with her beams, nor may
G ross darkness overcome her;
I now perceive why some do write
No country hath so short a night
A s England hath in summer.

One of the most ancient and remarkable acrostics is the phrase in Greek, Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the Saviour,' the initial letters of which form the word ichthys, a fish,' to which a mystical meaning was attached. In the acrostic poetry of the Hebrews, the initial letters of the lines or of the stanzas were made to run over the letters of the alphabet in their order. Twelve of the psalms of the Old Testament are written on this plan. The 119th Psalm is the most remarkable. It is composed of twenty-two divisions or stanzas (corresponding to the twenty-two letters of the Hebrew alphabet), each stanza consisting of eight couplets; and the first line of each couplet in the first stanza beginning, in the original Hebrew, with the letter aleph, in the second stanza with beth, &c. The divisions of the psalm are named each after the letter that begins the couplets, and these names have been retained in the English translation. With a view to aid the memory, it was customary at one time to compose verses on sacred subjects

VIEW SHOWING THE SITE OF THE ACROPOLIS AT ARGOS.

Vol. I., page 40.

collective title usually given to various ancient works on the saints and martyrs, both those of the Greek and Roman Catholic churches, but now applied especially to one great collection already extending to more than sixty volumes. Begun by the Jesuits in the 17th century, it was continued by a succession of editors, usually called the Bollandists (q.v.). For notices of other and similar collections, see SAINT, and MARTYR.

Actinia. See ANEMONE.

Actinism (Gr. aktis, a ray of sunlight') is a term whose signification has varied considerably. It seems to have been invented by Sir J. Herschel (about 1824), and with him it was used to express the heating power of sunlight. His Actinometer was employed for the same purposes as the Pyrheliometer (q.v.). Later, the term was applied to the property-which certain rays of light (alone) appeared to possess of decomposing chemical compounds (see SPECTRUM and PHOTOGRAPHY). Recent discovery has proved that there is no special class of actinic rays, it being found possible to utilise any of them photographically by proper physical and chemical processes. The general treatment of the subject will be found under Radiation of Heat; and the term Actinism, unless a perfectly novel sense be invented or discovered for it, is now superfluous.

Actinomyco'sis (Gr. aktis, 'a ray,' and mykes, 'a mushroom'), the name now given to a disease long known to occur in cattle, but confounded with tubercle or sarcoma. In 1877 Bollinger of Munich showed that little yellow grains are always present, consisting of a minute fungus, with its mycelium arranged in a radiate manner. To this fungus he gave the name Actinomyces; and further observation has confirmed his view that it is the cause of the disease. Actinomycosis is most common in cattle, occurs also in pigs, and (rarely) in man. It consists of tumours, sometimes of large size, formed of inflammatory material deposited round numerous grains of the fungus. They frequently suppurate and break down. In cattle they occur usually in the jaws, mouth, and stomach; in man in the neck, lungs, and adjacent parts.

Actinozo'a (Gr. aktis, a ray,' and zoon, an animal'), one of the three classes of Colenterates, including sea-anemones, dead-men's fingers, corals, &c. Like all Coelenterates, they possess a central mouth and digestive cavity, and are provided with Stinging Cells (q.v.); but they are distinguished from the other two classes (Hydrozoa and Ctenophora) by the possession of a turned-in mouthtube, forming a stomach region distinct from the body-cavity, and by the presence of a definite number of radial partitions extending from the inner tube to the body-wall. They are provided with tentacles round the mouth, and live either isolated or in colonies. The generative products are always formed on the cross partitions or mesenteries above referred to. The Actinozoa include two orders-Alcyonaria or Octacoralla, with eight tentacles; and Zoantharia or Hexacoralla, with tentacles in sixes. Of the former, Alcyonium, or dead-men's fingers, is a convenient type; and the sea-anemone is a familiar representative of the latter, to which the vast majority of corals also belong. See ALCYONIUM, ANEMONE, CORAL.

Action, in its large sense, means a judicial proceeding before a competent tribunal for the attainment of justice; and in this sense it is applied to procedure, whether criminal or civil. In its more limited acceptation it is used to signify proceedings in the civil courts, where it means the form prescribed by law for the enforcement of a right. In the law of England, the term action used to be applied to proceedings in the courts of common law,

ACTIUM

In

as distinguished from those of equity, where the word suit was used. Although the word suit is now abolished, certain actions (such as for debt, damages, and recovery of property) are competent only in the Common Law Division of the High Court, while others (such as for specific performance of contracts, partnership accounts, execution of trusts, administration of the estates of deceased persons) are competent only in the Chancery Division. Scotland, the formal distinction between law and equity never obtained, so that all actions are competent in the Court of Session, although certain applications (such as those for custody of children, interim appointment of public officers, regulation of charitable trusts, determination of matters omitted in deeds and statutes) are competent only in the Inner House. The leading actions in the law of Scotland are declarators, reductions, petitory and possessory actions; these, however, are generally found in certain combinations. Declarator is for a decree defining and declaring the right of the pursuer, and is, of course, of no practical value, unless peting right. Reduction is to set aside a formal the action is opposed by some one alleging a comdocument as granted in error or obtained by fraud. Petitory action is for money, whether debt or damages; while possessory is to maintain the status quo. Actions in Scotland were never confined to quent pleading as in England. Now, however, the same rigid formula in original writ and subsethere is no very substantial difference between the The first step is to bring the defending party into course of an action in England and in Scotland. court by service of a summons; the next to ascer tain by a record or adjusted pleadings what is the question at issue; the next to ascertain by argument, evidence, or both, which party is in the right: subject to appeal, while the verdict of a jury on a a judgment on a question of law being generally matter of fact is generally final. In England, owing larger power of bringing forward a counter-claim to recent reforms, the defending party has a much than in Scotland, and can even obtain decree in his favour if the counter-claim exceeds the original claim. Every action includes many incidental matters, such as motions to recover documents, to sist new parties, to amend, &c. The expenses of an action are generally ordered to be paid by the losing party, subject, however, to audit or taxation by an officer of court. See COMMON LAW (COURTS OF), and EQUITY.

Actium, a promontory on the west coast of Greece, at the entrance of the Ambracian Gulf, memorable for the naval victory gained near it by Octavian (afterwards the Emperor Augustus), over Mark Antony and Cleopatra, which decided the fate of Rome and of the world, 2d September 31 B.C. The two armies were encamped on the opposite shores of the gulf. Octavian had 80,000 infantry, 12,000 cavalry, and 250 ships of war; Antony, 100,000 infantry, 12,000 cavalry, and 500 ships. Antony's ships were large, and well provided with engines for throwing missiles, but clumsy in their movements; Octavian's were smaller and more agile. It was the advice of Cleopatra that decided Antony to rest the issue on a seafight. The battle continued for some hours undecided; at last, Agrippa, who commanded Octavian's fleet, succeeded, by a skilful manœuvre, in compelling Antony to extend his line of battle, the compactness of which had hitherto resisted all attempts of the enemy to break through. Cleopatra, who was stationed behind Antony's line, in terror took to flight with her sixty ships, and Antony at once flung away the empire of the world, and recklessly followed her with a few of his ships. The deserted fleet continued to resist bravely for some time, but was finally vanquished;