and long travel, or surely your father's son would never speak thus. Cassibunda shall dress your wound-she is well skilled in the virtue of all herbs-and by to-morrow you will speak in another tone." History records that the Roman army spent the night in exultation, and that a victory having been gained they had no desire to pursue the enemy; they wished rather to conciliate them, by after appliances, than to carry on a war of extermi- To-morrow came; and a solemn council nation. Not so the Britons: many had of assembled chiefs was held in the dwellalready formed plans of future vengeance; ing of Leonatus. Again and yet again others wandered about in the woods, un- did they deliberate on the best method of certain which way to turn; while the min-proceeding. Young men desired to march gled cries of women and children filled the forth as they had done before-yet silently air with lamentation. Some assisted to and stealthily, and under cover of the night, carry off the wounded, others called for so that they might come upon the enemy the aid of such as remained unhurt, num- unawares, and overpower them while asleep. bers abandoned their habitations and fled Older men preferred rather to negociate; to obscure retreats, and in a moment de- urging that even the most determined serted them; at one time they held con- bravery could avail nothing against men sultations, and having cheered their minds who wore armour, and had with them wellwith schemes for the future, suddenly trained cavalry. "We may see our wives changed them in despair; they beheld and children," said they, "exterminated, their wives and children, and burst into and ourselves become slaves of Rome, but tears; they viewed them again, and their what will this avail? Let us rather send feelings were inflamed to madness. forth an embassage desiring peace, and offering an annual tribute." Leonatus had fought courageously in the thickest of the fray. He encouraged his countrymen to make a vigorous resistance; to defend themselves by opposing their osier shields to the bosses of the Roman soldiers, which they continually thrust in the faces of the enemy; and more than once, when his men began to yield, and were on the point of saving themselves by flight, he caused them to maintain their ground. But what could undisciplined valour effect against the Romans? Even Leonatus was constrained to yield; and the dawn of morning found him with Cassibunda in their far-off home. 'Albion,”—for such was the name of Britain in the days of which we speak "is utterly undone," said Tref, who escaped from the battle, bearing with him a severe cut in his right arm. "We have no chance against the enemy. Saw you not how those armed vessels coasted within sight of the troops on land; how readily the helmsmen guided them among such rocks as would have wrecked our small boats? What chance have we by sea or land? and even if it were possible to cut off every one of these strangers of the iron helmet, think you not that others of their countrymen, intent on vengeance, would speedily disembark upon our shores ?" "Sit down, young man," answered Leonatus, "you are faint from loss of blood Ambassadors were sent accordingly to offer hostages, and apologise for the proceedings of the few past days. They falsely represented that the outbreak had not originated with the chiefs, but that ignorant and lawless men had taken advantage of the general excitement; and they entreated the Roman general to forgive a fault arising rather from ignorance than malice. Comius accompanied them whom Cæsar had sent a short time before to promote his designs among the natives, but whom Leonatus-who vainly protested against the duplicity which originated such an unmanly embassage had caused to be imprisoned. Much wrong, the ambassadors further acknowledged, had been done; yet they repeated that the fault originated in the impulse of the moment, and humbly sued for pardon. Cæsar reprimanded them for their breach of faith. He recalled to their remembrance the sending of ambassadors to Gaul, and with them hostages as a pledge of peace; but as they sought forgiveness, he would, he added, "impute the late attack rather to the cause they spoke of, than to intentional malice." Cæsar well knew that it was wise thus to speak; and he readily accepted the hostages whom they brought. Peace was, however, with him a measure of expediency: with the Britons a hollow truce. The one desired to gain time, in order to accomplish his designs of final conquest: the others hoped to consolidate their forces, and drive back the inɣaders from their coasts. Leonatus-who equally detested the pusillanimity and treachery which gave rise to the late negociations-resolved to carry out his own designs with as much celerity as possible. Aided by Tref, who was recovered from his wound, and ardently desired to be led against the enemy-he convened all such of the chiefs as stood firm in resolving to expel the common foe. Haranguing them on the aggressions of the Romans, he pointed out the only sure way by which they might hope to circumvent and finally subdue them: and having obtained their unanimous assent, it was agreed that they should assemble in the woods, and await a favourable opportunity to fall upon the invaders when unprepared for resistance. An opportunity soon occured. A considerable field of barley had remained uncut, contiguous to the dwelling of a native, and verging on a forest of vast extent, where detachments of armed natives lay concealed. The field seemed to have been forgotten: perhaps the owner had been killed, or the natives were afraid to venture within reach of the Roman camp. It happened, however, that the Seventh Legion went out to forage; and while one part cut the corn, which they greatly rejoiced to discover, and another carried it away, a tremendous shout announced that the natives were rushing on them. The foraging party was nearly overwhelmed; for the men thinking of no danger were busy in reaping, and had laid aside their arms. Many were killed, and others, endeavouring to escape, were thrown down by the war-chariots, and crushed beneath their wheels. The moment would have been fatal, both to the whole of the foraging party, and the cohorts that were placed at some distance for an advanced guard, had not Cæsar advanced swiftly to their rescue. He, however, thought it not advisable to engage the enemy at a disadvantage; and having maintained his ground, he retreated in good order to his camp. Other formidable outbreaks occurred; sometimes by day, but more generally at night. Leonatus was everywhere present. 66 He encouraged the wavering, and stimulated the courageous to deeds of unwonted heroism. His single arm laid prostrate many of his enemies; and Britain might have remained unconquered, had there not been treachery within his camp. But emissaries went forth, with promises of Roman gold. They convinced those who lent a willing ear to their insinuations, that friendship with Rome was preferable to precarious warfare. Leonatus even heard that a price was set upon his head, and he resolved to elude the vigilance of his enemies by flight. Hasten, my wife," he said, "and you, my children, let us flee from the treachery of those for whom my blood has been freely shed. We have no time to lose; for already, it may be, the steps of the betrayer are on their way towards my dwelling." And they went forth, that noble-minded family, with Tref for their guide, who was well acquainted with the secret paths that led among woods and beside morasses; he loved the daughter of Leonatus, and his own hearth had been rendered desolate by the fall of his father, and two brothers, in a late conflict with the Romans; he had no mother, nor yet sisters, to share his exile, and some, whom he most cared for, had sold themselves to Rome. "Farewell, then," he said, "to my father's hut, and the blossoming orchard that grows beside it. We will away to the wilderness country, and rear our dwelling where neither the Roman, nor the base betrayers of their country, may follow." Years came and went, and a group of wattled huts were seen, surrounded with cultivated fields and meadows, where cattle grazed. Leonatus and Cassibunda lived there, and their grandchildren grew up around them; and when the time came that they must be gone, they were laid to rest, one beside the other, near a small grove of oaks, from out whose shady depth flowed a clear stream of rushing waters. Men had not then learned to associate with funereal obsequies either pomp or vain ambition, neither had the practice of burning the dead then commenced, and the strewing of the pile with garments and fragrant spices. A mound of turf was alone raised to the memory of the departed; and this, in their opinion, was more to be desired than laboured structures of huge stones, built with weariness and labour. Those who attended the funeral of Leonatus and his wife wept bitterly-their tears and lamentations were of no measured character; for the chief and matron, whom they deplored, were deserving of all honour and praise. To grieve for the departed is always comely; the women, who stood that day beside the grove and stream, and looked for the last time on the closely enwrapped figures that were about to be hidden from the living, could not control their feelings; the men were mostly silent, but each one firmly resolved within himself to emulate more sedulously than ever the virtues to which they owed their freedom from the oppression and violence of their foreign THE TEACHING OF SMALL THINGS. EXPERIMENTS familiar and vulgar to the interpretation of nature, do as much, if not more, conduce than experiments of a higher quality. Certainly this may be averred for truth, that they be not the highest instances that give the best and surest information. This is not unaptly expressed in the tale, so common, of the philosopher, that while he gazed upward to the stars, fell into the water; for, if he had looked down, he might have seen the stars in the water; but looking up to heaven, he could not see the water in the stars. In like manner, it often comes to pass that small and mean things conduce more to the discovery of great matters, than great things to the discovery of small matters; and therefore Aristotle notes well, that the nature of every thing is best seen in its smallest portions. For that cause he inquires the nature of a commonwealth, first in a family and the simple conjugations of society, man and wife, parents and children, master and servant, which are in every cottage. So, likewise, the nature of this great city of the world, and the policy thereof, must be sought in every first concordances and least portions of things. So we see that secret of nature (esteemed one of the great mysteries) of the turning of iron touched with a loadstone towards the poles, was found out in needles of iron, not in bars of iron.-Bacon. THE PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MANKIND. CHAPTER THE THIRD. THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF MAN AS COMPARED WITH THE LOWER ANIMALS. * IN our last chapter we were comparing. the structure of the skeleton of man with that of the highest of those creatures which most nearly approach him in habits and organization. We purposely selected the skeleton, in preference to any other system of organs, for comparison, as we find this hard framework of the higher animals assuming its peculiarities of structure in obedience to the requirements of the softer parts of the system, which it either supports or protects. In contrasting the conformation of man with the lower animals, we cannot fail to be struck with the numerous points of difference which exist between them. The differences are so great that it seems almost an improper expression to say, that the orang-utan is a link between man and the quadrumana, as man has an organization much more in advance of this creature than it has above any of its own tribe. Man, in fact, is not merely the last link in the chain of the animal kingdom, but is a new creation, with a body as much more highly developed above any of the lower creatures as his mind is superior to the instinct and intelligence of animals. Yet the world has been called upon to adopt the idea, that man has not been specially created and placed upon the surface of the earth; but that he is the descendant of some of the higher forms of monkeys. This theory (which the writer believes to be entirely erroneous), is called the theory of organic development, and it supposes that the various forms of animal and vegetable life, called species, have not been created, but developed the one from the other. Thus, it supposes that cells are formed under the influence of galvanism, which at last become endowed with life; that these, on the one hand, proceed to become plants, and on the other to become animals. Seaweeds grow into lichens, lichens into mosses, mosses into ferns, and ferns into palms, oaks, and elms. The animalcules become polyps, the polyps star-fishes, and these again pass on to fishes, reptiles, birds, and mammals, till at last, by the continued process of improvement, the race of man came into existence. Now, had we nothing but the forms of the lower animals to guide us to a rational history of creation, we might-influenced by the close resemblance in structure of many kinds of · animals-come to the conclusion that it was not impossible for one to produce the other; but when we come to compare man with all other animals, we should find that he left them at so great a distance, that here, at least, our explanation would not hold. But when we examine the facts of history, and find that in all time we have no single observation to prove that a lower animal can produce a higher one, and each creature produces its own species and no other, we are driven to the conclusion that the production of every species of animal and plant, as well as man, was an especial act of creative power on the part of Deity, and that he has left no portion of his creation to the mere consequences of material laws. Let us, however, now return to our comparison between the structure of man and the orang-utan, as we shall find that this examination will materially assist us in our subsequent inquiries with regard to the differences that exist amongst the races of men. In regarding the skeleton of the lower animals, as compared with man, nothing is more remarkable than the position of the head. In man, the head is placed upon the top of the spinal column, in such a manner that its whole weight rests directly upon the erect spine. It is on this account that a small amount of muscular power is capable of giving to the human head the various movements of which it is susceptible. On examining the human body, we find a number of small muscles attached to the cervical vertebræ (Fig. 1, p. 118, b b), and to the base of the skull, by which the head and face are moved up and down, and from side to side, adapting it to the various positions it assumes under different mental states, and in the exercise of its functions. When we examine the lower animals, we find that the skull is placed obliquely upon the * See "Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation." cervical vertebræ, so that with the horizontal position of the spine it gravitates toward the earth. This obliquity is less in monkeys than in the horse, ox, and elephant; and in these latter animals a powerful ligament, called by anatomists the ligamentum nucha, is extended from the base of the skull to the cervical vertebræ, for the purpose of keeping the head in its proper position in relation to the spine. In animals that are eaten, this powerful ligamentous band is known as "pax-wax," or "pack-wax.” The form of the skull, and the relation of the face to the upper portion of the skull, are very different in the lower animals and man. In the former we find the upper and lower jaws projecting greatly, so as to elongate the face; whilst the skull is thrown backwards, and, as it were, behind the face. This projection of the muzzle is very characteristic of the lower animals; and as we pass from the less developed to those which approach man in structure, we find the jaws projecting less, and the skull brought more forward, till at last they assume a somewhat human appearance. This is the case with the monkeys, and especially the orang-utan; but the skull of this animal presents a wide contrast with that of man (Figs. 1 and 2) in these particulars. In order to appreciate the differences between the face and the skull of various animals and man, different plans have been proposed, but that of Camper is most generally followed. This consists in drawing a line from the external opening of the ear to the lower edge of the opening of the nostril. If another line be now drawn from the side of the chin, falling upon the most prominent part of the forehead, it will form an angle with the first line, more or less acute according to the greater or less prominence of the skull and projection of the jaws. If we draw these lines in the crocodile, we shall find that they correspond, and there is no appreciable angle. Cuvier gives the following as the result of the measurement of this angle in various animals :-In the Horse it is 23 deg.; Ram, 30 deg.; Dog, 35 deg.; Orang-utan, 56 deg.; European adult 85 deg. It should, however, be remarked, that these measurements differ within certain limits amongst all creatures. The dif ference is very considerable in the various races of men. Thus, in the negro races (Fig. 3) we find this angle more acute than it is amongst the races who inhabit China, or the wild Indians of America; whilst in the European it is more nearly a right angle than in any other. Fig. 3. SKULL OF NEGRO. e Cheekbone. f Lower jaw. a Frontal bone. 6 Occipital bone. c Temporal bone. g Upper jaw. d Zygoma. h Nasal bone. Another remarkable feature connected with the organization of the head is the character of the teeth. Man is distinguished from all other animals in the equal length of his teeth. In all the lower animals we find the teeth overlapping each other, and thus producing an irregular line, where they are closed one over the other and meet | together. The vertical position of the teeth in man produces also the prominent chin, which is a very characteristic feature in his face. Another peculiarity in the face of man is the prominence of the bones of the nose (Fig. 3, h) as compared with the diminished protrusion of the upper jaw, and the projection of the forehead; so that the nose becomes an organ influencing the whole aspect of the countenance. The whole of these distinguishing characters of the skull and face of man have relation to his erect position, as we immediately recognise in the diminished length of the muzzle, the broad flat face, and expanded forehead-the structure of a creature that could not use its mouth as an organ of prehension, for the purpose of taking its food from the ground, or even for laying hold of the fruit of trees, as is the case with monkeys. It is not, however, alone in the hard parts, or bones, that we find man differing from the rest of the animal kingdom. To each of the various bones of the skeleton in the living body there are attached muscles, which have the power of moving the various limbs, and securing the activity of the whole frame. These muscles are adapted to the special need of the system; and although in the power these muscles possess over the movement of the body, man may not appear to have so great advantages as many animals in running, climbing, leaping, and flying, yet in his intelligence he possesses a power of controlling these muscles; this enables him fearlessly to contend with the strongest animals, and to subdue them to his own wants and requirements. The structure and position of the heart, and the distribution of the great blood-vessels, have all reference to the erect posture in man. This is seen remarkably in the form of the blood-vessels which enter the head, and which are so constructed as to allow of a free passage of blood to the brain. It is on this account that a long continued stooping posture is so injurious to man, and frequently ends in an attack of apoplexy, arising from the too great facility with which the blood in this position enters the head. The great nervous mass called the brain, is larger in man, in those portions devoted to the exercise of the functions of the intellect, and the convolutions are deeper and larger than in any of the lower animals. This large brain is connected with the development of those higher mental powers, which, after all, constitute the most remarkable distinction between inan and the brutes. As a power, under the direct control of his intelligence, voice is one of the distinguishing characters of man. Although many animals may have the power of producing sounds through their larynx, and these may be indications to others of certain feelings, or even mental conditions, there is nothing corresponding to human language amongst them. At any rate, they have no power of indicating by signs these sounds, and thus of handing down from generation to generation the knowledge they have previously acquired. With this power in man, we find remarkably connected his capacity for |