what is called a "musical ear" cannot be remedied in the grown-up person. 149-Directions, &c. of Letters. P.-A lady correspondent writes-"Dear Tutor, will you give your opinion on the propriety of directing letters after the mode you have yourself adopted. Some of your pupils have followed the example, but have met with ridicule from their correspondents; they will, however, continue the plan if you advise it."All reforms or innovations meet with ridicule and opposition; and it is not quite plain that such obstacles are useless, for the difficulties which beset a scheme test the motives of its advocates. If public faith was given readily to every novel agitation, much mischief would result; but as great exertion and patient perseverance is required to win it, every innovation is put to the test; agitators actuated by mere selfish impulses become wearied; while those who are supported by strong principle, endure. It is not, therefore, entirely to be regretted that new plans meet with opposition. Let us take courage. "Truth is mighty, and it will prevail." We believe, that the best method of addressing a letter, is to place the parts of the address in the order of their importance to the persons to whose care they are delivered. When a letter is dropped into the box, the first question which the postmaster asks himself is-" For what locality is the communication intended? north mail? south mail? &c." The part of the address which supplies the answer to this question requiring to be known first, should be placed first upon the letter. In case of a letter posted in England for a town in Ireland, the name of the latter country should be written in large text, as the first line. Nothing further would be required to be known till it reached the mail-station in Ireland, when the lettersorter would inquire if the town was a small or important one-"For what county is this letter destined?" This should follow next in order, and the other lines as follows:-IRELAND; Wicklow County, Kilcool, Fitz-James O'Flaherty, Esq. It is rarely necessary to name counties, as post towns are well known to the letter-sorters; but it is generally requisite to give the name of the street, and number, where the person addressed lives in a town of large population, thus:-BLACKBURN: Strawberry Bank, No.11, W. Clarke, Esq. Letters should always be stamped; it is a mark of thoughtlessness and laziness to post letters unpaid, or to pay the postage with coin. The nation owe a great debt of gratitude to Mr. Rowland Hill for the introduction of the system of penny-postage, and the least return the public can make, is to take every possible means to facilitate the working out of the details. 150-Libraries. B. W. T.-The first national library was founded in Egypt, and was placed under the protection of the divinities. The temple was embellished with the well-known inscription-"The nourishment of the soul," or, "The medicine of the mind." The Egyptian Ptolemies founded the vast library of Alexandria, which was afterwards the emulative labour of rival monarchs; the librarian, Demetrius Phalereus, amassed from all nations their choicest productions. Pisistratus the Greek projected an immense collection of the works of the learned, and is supposed to have been the collector of the scattered works which passed under the name of Homer. By the Roman conquerors, manuscripts were considered more precious than vases of silver or gold. Paulus Emilius, after the defeat of Perseus, king of Macedon, brought to Rome a great number of works he had collected in Greece; Sylla followed his example, and founded the first Roman public library. After the taking of Carthage, the Roman senate rewarded the family of Regulus with the books found in that city. Many illustrious Romans exercised great taste in their libraries. Asinius Pollio, Crassus, Cæsar, and Cicero, have been celebrated for their literary splendour. The wealthy Lucullus distinguished himself by his vast collections of books, and the liberal access to them which he ailowed. "It was library," says Plutarch, "whose walks, galleries, and cabinets were open to all visitors." This library Julius Cæsar proposed to open for the public, having chosen the erudite Varro for its librarian; but he did not live to see his project realized. Libraries, indeed, became so fashionable, that emperors gave their names to them, and the most costly adornments were lavished upon them. first public library in Italy was founded by Nicholas Nicoli, the son of a merchant, who purchased a library, and at his death left it as a bequest to the people. His debts, however, exceeding his effects, the princely generosity of Cosmo de Medici realized the intention of its former possessor, and afterwards enriched it by the addition of an apartment, in which he placed the Greek, Hebrew. Arabic, Chaldaic, and Indian MSS. Nicholas V. laid the foundation of the Vatican. Cardinal Bessarion gave a The Venice the rudiments of the first public library; and Sir Thomas Bodley laid the foundation of the magnificent erection in Oxford. Sir Robert Cotton, Sir Hans Sloane, Dr. Birch, Mr. Cracherode, and others of this race of lovers of books, have all contributed to form these literary treasures. Richard de Bury, bishop of Durham and chancellor of England so early as 1341, perhaps raised the first private library in our country. Rantzan founded the great library at Copenhagen. Wolfius, speaking of the library of the German Fuggers, said that "it was furnished with as many books as there were stars in heaven." In 1364 the royal library of France did not exceed twenty volumes; at the beginning of the fourth century, the library of Louis IX. contained only four classical authors; that of Oxford, in 1300, consisted only of "a few tracts kept in chests." For much varied and curious information on the present state and condition of public libraries in this country, and upon the continent, we may refer to the Parliamentary report on public libraries, published in 1850. QUESTIONS REQUIRING ANSWERS. 12-Quotation. S. J. T.-Whence is derived the expression Cum grano salis? 13-Duke Humphrey. T.-What is the origin of the saying, "to dine with Duke Humphrey?" 14-Druids. J. H. What is the best work on the religion and customs of the ancient Druids ? 15-Ship Building. G. C.-What is the title, price, &c., of the best modern work on the construction of sailing vessels, &c. 16-Lambswool. J. B.-J. B. ives in an agricultural district, and sometimes clips young sheep. Supposing that the wool so obtained was what is known as "lambswool" he looked into the dictionary for that word-bat found to his surprise that the meaning there attached to the term was, "ale and apple-pulps!" which J. B. remarks is "very odd and absurd, because it cannot be." We find the same meaning given to the word in our own dictionary. Lambswool was the name given to a beverage which was a favourite in olden times. It is mentioned in Percy's Ancient Poetry; but this will not satisfy J. B., who wishes to know," what is the lambswool sold in shops; wherein does it differ from Berlin and other wools; and has it any right to be considered the wool of the young sheep?" QUESTIONS ANSWERED. 1-College Expenses.-There appears to be some slight errors in the answer to W. G. 1st. Sizars are only required to read Cicero de Oratore, book i., not all the three Books. 2nd. Pensioners pay £7 10s. half-yearly, not yearly. 3rd. The mathematical Sizarship course, the examination is not in the "Definitions of Books v. and vi. &c.," but in "Definitions of Book v. and in Book vi., except props. 7, 28, 29. I have carefully read over the answer, and find it in every other respect quite correct. -A Member of Trinity College, Dublin. 4-Black Boards. A. S.-The best quality of black boards for drawing on, are prepared as follows:-Take a wooden-or what is much better, a very stout pasteboard-and give it two or three coats of lamp-black and turpentine, to which add painters' gold size. Use a stiff brush, and lay on the mixture immediately, as it dries fast. If too much size is used, the board will be too smooth; if too little, the paint will not dry hard. The cheapest white chalk for drawing is made as follows:-Procure from a painter a lump of chalk, and saw it into slices, and then into squares of the size wanted. A pennyworth of chalk will make at least fifty sticks such as are generally sold for twopence each. Coloured chalks are made by pounding white chalk or whiting, and mixing either of them with a little red lead, yellow ochre, or green verdigris, according to the colour required; add a small quantity of common paste dissolved in water (a teaspoonful of paste to half a cup of water.) Form the paste into rolls like pencils, and when dry they will be ready for use.-T. B. J. 9-Cottage Plans. J. W. G.-Two works are published on Cottage Plans, Estimates, Elevations, &c., viz., by Henry Godard, Esq., Lincoln, for which the Agricultural Society awarded the first prize. In boards, 28. 6d., cloth 3. Likewise by Mr. T. C. Hine, Nottingham, and Mr. S. J. Nicoll, London, for which the first and second prizes were awarded by the Society of Arts. Price 3s. 6d. in boards, 48. in cloth. Both published by J. Deane, Threadneedle Street. Also, Plans and Elevations of Cottages, 108. 6d.-Day and Son's, Lincoln s Inn. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ETYMOLOGY-continued. CHAP. V.-THE VERB-continued. 246. The next compound past tense is the past progressive, also called the past incomplete, formed of the present participle, and the past tense of the verb "to be;" as, was defending; he was writing; they were coming. It indicates an action going some past time (progressive), but not finished at the time referred to on at (incomplete). 247. The next tenses are usually called perfect, because they indicate emphatically that the action is completed. The sign of these tenses is the present tense of the auxiliary have; which, by itself indicating possession, is used in combination to imply the having or possessing the action spoken of as complete. Thus, I have defended; I have been defending; I have been defended,―indicate that the action, so far as it is spoken of, is completed. 248. The next tenses indicate that the action was completed before some past time referred to, and have received the names pluperfect (more than perfect), prior past (past, before), past complete. The sign of these tenses is the past tense of the auxiliary have indicating, therefore, the possession or having of the completed action at some past. time; as, I had defended him; I had been defending him; I had written before I received your letter. 249. The next class of tenses are those which relate to future time; and there is no provision whatever for this in the simple English verb. The future tenses indicate that the action will take place at some future time, and are formed by means of the auxiliaries shall, or will: as, I will defend; I shall defend; they will be defending. These may be called future indefinite tenses, as they express generally that the action will be done at some time afterwards, without defining any particular time. 250. The future perfect tenses denote that the action will be completed before some future time referred to, and are formed by the auxiliaries shall, or will, and have; as, I shall have defended; he will have been defending; I shall have written before he arrives.. In these cases, the action will be had or possessed in a complete state before the time referred to. 251. Thus, in the English language there are two forms for future tenses, shall, and will. As usually happens when there are two or more words having a similar meaning, each is appropriated to one peculiar shade of meaning, differing from that indicated by the others. 252. The meanings of shall and will differ according to the person for which they are used. Shall, in the first person, simply predicts or foretells some future event; in the second and third persons, it expresses a threat or command on the part of the speaker. Will, on the other hand, means quite the contrary in its use in the different persons.. In the first person it expresses will or determination on the part of the speaker; in the second and third, it merely denotes what will probably happen, or, simply foretells. Thus, I shall go, expresses simply that the speaker expects to go, or thinks it extremely probable that he will go; while, You shall go, or, he shall go, indicate the determination of the speaker, imposing a command. I will go, expresses the determination of the speaker to go; you will go, or he will go, indicate merely the expectation of the speaker. 253. The proper use of shall and will, is one of the difficulties of the English language; and the rules laid down are frequently broken, even by grammarians themselves. Much has been written on the subject; and one writer lays down no less than VOL. I.-NO. VIII. I thirty-five rules for the proper use of shall and will. The following versified translation of the rule, as stated by Wallis, is often quoted: In the FIRST person, simply, SHALL FORETELLS; In will, a threat, or else a promise dwells; "The The following extracts will serve to illustrate further these knotty points :difference between the present application of shall and will is clearly stated by Webster; shall is merely future in the first person, and imperative in the other two; with will, the case is exactly reversed."-M'Culloch.- "Perhaps the best popular explanation of the general rule may be expressed as under: The form is used to express futurity depending on the will of the speaker; as, I will pay, you shall pay, he shall pay. The form 2 is used to express futurity not dependent on the will of the speaker; as, I shall die, you will die, he will die."-Irish National School Grammar. 254. I will be drowned, and nobody shall save me-means, that the speaker desires and intends to be drowned, and commands that no one shall attempt to save him. The will and shall must change places, if he desires to express his fear that he will be drowned, and that no one will save him. The word shall is from a Saxon word, signifying I owe, or I ought; as in Chaucer, "The faith I shall to God;" and hence signifies generally duty or obligation, from which it has come to express also futurity-futurity simply in the first person; futurity along with duty or obligation in the second and third persons.* 255. At the bottom of the table, page 184, the passive form of the verb "to defend" is exhibited. In this form the subject or nominative is also the object on which the action is performed; it is formed by the use of some part of the verb "to be," along with the past participle of the present verb; and with the single difference, that the past participle is used instead of the present, is the same as the progressive form. It has the same tenses as the ordinary form of the indicative mood. The passive verb is often called the passive voice of the principal verb; but it is quite immaterial whether we consider it as an independent verb, or as a form of the principal verb. In the Latin language, the passive voice is undeniably a part of the principal verb, being mostly formed by inflections, thus-to love, to be loved, I love, they are loved, he was loved, she will be loved-in Latin are, Ama're, ama'ri, a'mo, aman' tur, amaba'tur, ama'bitur. In English we may regard "to be loved" either as an independent passive verb, or as the passive form, or passive voice of the transitive verb, "to love." 256. The other moods and parts of the compound verb are exhibited in the table, The conditional, imperative, and infinitive moods have already been page 185. explained. * It has been often asserted that Scotch writers misapply the auxiliaries shall and will; but if any one take the trouble to investigate the matter, he will find that this is a mistake to which the best English writers are about equally liable. Even Shakspere, perhaps the most idiomatic writer of the English tongue, confounds shall and will occasionally; Milton often; and in Hallam and Wordsworth we meet with frequent errors in this respect. We shall subjoin a few sentences from English writers, in which they are wrongly used. Let the pupil correct the errors. "Theocritus, in an epigram, which shall be cited in the next note, dedicates myrtles to Apollo."Warton's Milton. "An extract from Mr. Hallam shall close the present section and introduce the next."-Latham's English Language. "Here, then, the present introductory course of lectures shall close."-Arnold. ; "I will begin with a passage of very considerable beauty."-Hallam. "I will now for a moment go over to the position of an opponent, and state his argument for him."-Taylor's Man Responsible, &c. •— Connon's System of English Grammar. 257. In the compound verb there is another mood-the POTENTIAL. Its name is derived from the Latin potens, able, or capable; and it is used chiefly when we desire to denote liberty, or ability to do a thing. It is composed of the radical form, or the past or present participle, with the auxiliaries may, can, might, could, would, should. Of these, may and might denote present or past liberty to do the thing; can and could indicate the power, or ability, to do it; would, in the first person, denotes a purpose or intention, depending on some condition; in the second and third persons, it foretells, or prognosticates, conditionally; should, in the first person, simply foretells what would be likely to happen in certain circumstances; in the second and third persons, it expresses duty, or obligation. 258. The following table exhibits the general character of the auxiliary verbs, as used in the compound verb : 259. In concluding the subject of "The Verb," we wst take the opportunity of mentioning that, at present, grammarians are very much divided in opinion as to the proper methods of arranging its various parts, and as to the most suitable names for them; and that no two books on English Grammar treat this important subject alike. For a long time the English verb was treated like the Latin verb; and, both in England and in Scotland, works in which this system was adopted, up to a recent period, were the standard works on English Grammar. Lately, however, the opinions have been gaining ground, that we should not follow the rule of the Latin verb in explaining the structure of the English verb; and that no expression can properly be termed part of a verb, unless it is formed by inflection from the radical form. Thus, while ama'vi and ama bo are allowed to be undoubted parts of the verb a'mo, I love, the corresponding tenses, in English, I have loved, and I will love, must not be considered parts of the English verb, because another verb is called in to aid in forming these tenses. In like manner, the potential and conditional moods have been ruthlessly swept away. But it does not appear to us that there can be any good objection to considering every possible verb in which the action of loving is spoken of, containing the syllable lov, as a part (or form, if that term be preferred) of the verb "to love," whether that form be expressed by inflection, or by the addition of an auxiliary; that, on the same principle on which we retain the objective case in the English noun, we ought to retain, as distinct forms of the principal verb, to be pointed out to the pupil, every leading mode, or variety of meaning; and that we should study the construction of other languages, and thence derive assistance in arranging the principal moods and tenses, which the wants of men have contrived to give variety, force, and delicacy of expression. At the same time it is undoubtedly right to show distinctly what is done by inflection-what, by compounding different verbs: and this has been done in the present treatise, by treating of the simple and compound verb separately. 260. Having now concluded the etymology of the verb, it still remains for us to show the method of parsing it more fully than this has been done in the previous examples. Let the verbs to be parsed be those in the following sentence;—John and I SAW her sister, by whom we WERE TOLD that she HAD BEEN SUFFERING from a severe attack of rheumatism. Saw-irregular transitive verb, "to see," indicative mood, past tense, third person plural, to agree with its nominative, John and I ;—Were told-irregular compound passive verb, "to be told," indicative mood, past tense, third person plural, to agree with its nominative we; or these may be parsed separately. Were-as an irregular intransitive verb, "to be," indicative mood, past tense, third person plural, to agree with its nominative we, and auxiliary to told. Told-past participle of the irregular transitive verb, "to tell," making a compound passive verb with the auxiliary were; or relating as a participial adjective to we (in the same manner as We were glad, we were sorry.) Had been suffering regular compound verb, used intransitively, pluperfect tense, progressive form, third person singular, to agree with its nominative she. Or, each may be parsed separately-had, as the past tense of the irregular verb "to have”—been, as the past participle of the irregular verb "to be"-suffering, as the present participle of the regular verb "to suffer," used adjectively, as describing the state of the nominative "she." The learner should parse the compound verb both ways-first, each verb separately; then the whole as one verb. 261. In parsing, some grammarians term the radical form of a verb, when it occurs in a compound verb, the infinitive mood, with its sign "to" dropped; as in the following sentences, in which the words in italics would be called infinitives-He may be here; she will water the garden; we did not ask him. CHAP. VI.-THE ADVERB, PREPOSITION, CONJUNCTION, AND INTERJECTION, 262. The learner is here recommended to read carefully the general account of these parts of speech in page 33, before entering on this chapter. The Adverb. 263. This word qualifies a verb, adjective, or other adverb: it is to these words what the adjective is to the noun. (42.) 264. The leading varieties of adverbs are those of place, time, quantity, number, affirmation or negation, manner, quality, or degree. Some writers enumerate so many as twenty-five kinds of adverbs. 265. Adverbs of place. Examples :-Above, below, within, without, far, near, here, there, anywhere, elsewhere, hence, away, off, hither, downwards, out, aside, ahead, ashore. 266. Adverbs of time. Examples :-Now, to-day, to-morrow, soon, yesterday, lately, immediately, daily, often, never, then, at once, early, late, when, while, long, already, before, again, hourly. 267. Adverbs of quantity. Examples:-Much, enough, abundantly, sufficiently. 268. Adverbs of number. Examples:-Once, twice, firstly, secondly, lastly, finally, seldom. 269. Adverbs of affirmation or negation. Examples:-Yes, certainly, indeed, aye, no, not, really, truly. 270. Adverbs of manner, quality, or degree. Examples:-Very, possibly, alike, generally, perhaps, too, almost, highly, nearly, greatly, consequently, so, that, quickly, wisely, well, ill, how, quite. This class includes a great number of adverbs formed from adjectives, by changing the termination into ly; as, scarce, scarcely; able, ably; wise, wisely. 271. Some adverbs can be compared like adjectives; as, soon, sooner, soonest: and most adverbs ending in ly can be compared by more and most; as, more slowly, most politely. 272. Some combinations of words have the power of the adverb; as, now-a-days, at present, by-and-by, not at all, in case, at last, in like manner, in general, by no means, of course. These are called adverbial phrases. The adverb is an abbreviated form of what might be expressed by a noun, adjective, and preposition; as, here, or, in this place; now, or, at the present time; prudently, or in a prudent manner. |