the Negroes, the Alfourous, the Papuas, New Zealanders, and Australians, (Fig. 12). The countenance in these cases is the least pleasant of those of any of the groups of which we are now speaking. The projection of the bones constituting the lower parts of the face, gives to the expression an animal and somewhat ferocious character. The forehead also retires in these casesthe lips are thick and protruding-the nose is not proportionately developed, the upper part being compressed, and the nostrils wide and expanded. Such are some of the features which belong to the narrow and elongated head, and which all have agreed constitute the least beautiful form of head belonging to the human race.

The third variety of head, called the square, broad-faced, or pyramidal, is formed like the last, as far as the shape of the back part of the head is concerned; but it differs in the excessive outward development of the bones of the face, so that the face forms the base of a cone or pyramid. This form of the skull is represented in that of the Eskimo (Fig. 9), which must, however, be regarded as an exaggerated type of the group.

lowest development in this form of the skull. This shape of head is found in

Fig. 13.

The peculiarities of this head are caused by the projection of the zygomatic processes and cheek bones on each side, giving great breadth to the face. The sockets

of the eyes are generally large and derp in these skulls; whilst the bones of the nose, and the space between the eyebrows, are on a level with the bones of the cheek. Of this kind of head, the Mongolian (Fig. 13) may be taken as the best example. It embraces the Eskimo, the primitive Americans, the Hottentots, the Finnish nations of Europe, the Chinese, Indo-Chinese, the Tungusians, Japanese, part of the Tartar races, and others of the northern Asiatic nations.

The countenance of these races differs from the last in projecting less, and in its much greater width from one cheek bone to another. It is in these races that the obliquity of the eye is observed, which we referred to in the last chapter. The nose is depressed-the lips are not so large as in the last class, nor so compressed as in the first-the chin is short.

Although the races of men have been thus classed together according to the form of their heads, it must not be supposed that this is one of the best ways of classifying the varieties of men. In natural history generally, it is always dangerous to use a single character as a means of classifying; as the great end of all classification-the bringing together those objects which most nearly resemble each other, and the separating those which are most unlike is often thus defeated. In speaking presently of the particular races of men, we shall see that the structure of the head is an important element of distinction to be taken into consideration; but there are other points, such as the nature of the language spoken, habits of the people, and so on, which must assist in determining the relation of one race of men to another. In fact, we have no single character that will serve for an absolute distinction between closely allied races. We find the colour of the skin, the character of the hair, and the structural peculiarities of the head, gradually passing the one into the other, in such a way that it is only by putting all the circumstances together that any one point becomes of assistance.

Although we have not mentioned the soft parts of the body, such as the muscles which lie over the bones, as having any modifications in different races, yet it will be at once obvious that these parts must differ with the harder structure on which

they rest; and it is to differences in their form that we must refer the variety of countenance which is found to accompany the particular forms of skull.

Other parts of the skeleton have been examined with great care, for the purpose of obtaining structural differences between the varieties; but none have been found so generally useful as those of the head. The bones of the pelvis (see Fig. 1, p. 118) afford considerable varieties of form, but none of these are sufficiently constant to mark the characters of races. The shapes which the pelvis assumes have been divided into four great classes-the oval, the round, the square, and the oblong. Of these, the oval form is found to predominate amongst the European races-the round is most common amongst the aboriginal Americans the square is found amongst the Mongolians, the Chinese, Turks, Malays, and others-and the oblong form in the Africans. Still, each of these forms is so common in the races in which one particular form may predominate, that they afford but slight distinguishing characters.

Amongst the black races of Africa we find indications of structural differences in other portions of the skeleton in addition to the head and pelvis. Thus, the fore-arm of the negro, in proportion to his upper arm, is longer than that of the European. The feet of these races are also often turned out, arising from the nearer approach of the knees. This is often seen amongst Europeans, and is regarded as a deformity, but is a normal condition of the structure of the black races. In addition to the turning out of the feet, they are often flat, the bone of the heel (os calcis) not being arched, as in the white and yellow races, but lying on a level with the other bones of the instep. The muscles of the calf of the leg are differently formed-the larger part of the great muscle, the gastrocnemius, being situated high up, near to the hams, at the back of the leg. These have been regarded as indications of degradation amongst the African races, and approaches towards the higher forms of the lower animals; but it will be seen that none of these points interfere with the decided differences between man and the monkey tribes to which we have before alluded.

A point of difference between individuals, and to a certain extent between races, to

which attention ought to be drawn, is stature. The statements which were so frequently made in old books, of races of dwarfs and giants, seem to be disproved by the extensive researches of modern travellers. It is even questionable whether the allusion so frequently made to giants in Scripture, did not refer more to the monstrous moral character of those persons than to their physical stature. Be this as it may, there is no doubt that the human frame is subject to very great varieties in size, and that from causes which are not at present well understood. It does not appear that these departures from ordinary size occur more frequently in one race than in another. Of course we are better acquainted with the most remarkable specimens of dwarfs and giants that have occurred in Europe, than we are with those of other races. The most remarkable dwarf that has becn known in modern times is the small American, known as General Tom Thumb. This diminutive specimen of our race is only twenty-eight inches in height. One of the tallest individuals recently known was Charles Byrne, or O'Brien, an Irishman, who measured eight feet and a quarter high, and whose skeleton is now to be seen in the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons. There is at present exhibiting in London an Italian, who is said to be seven feet eleven inches in height.

There are, however, races which are distinguished from others both by the smallness and largeness of their stature. It has been the exaggerated descriptions of these people which have given rise both to the mis-statements of sober history and the fables of tradition. The height of the European races, which is about the average of that of the whole family of man, is from four feet and a half to six feet. Various circumstances, however, tend to diminish the standard of height in a nation at different times. Thus, it is stated that, during the wars of Napoleon, in France the national stature of that country was reduced two inches, from the loss of life amongst the soldiers, who were the tallest men in the nation. There is, however, no reason to believe that man's height is diminishing, either in particular races, or amongst the whole of mankind. This notion, which early prevailed in the history

of the world, and is supported with great earnestness by the Roman historian Pliny, seems to have gained ground from the supposition that the bones of various large extinct animals were those of men. Thus we find Buffon, the French naturalist, describing bones as those of human beings, which were subsequently demonstrated by Daubenton to be those of elephants, and other gigantic animals of that tribe. So far from any degeneration in size going on in our own race, we have direct proof that such is not the case, in the fact that the iron armour which is preserved to us, and which belonged to the warriors of former times, is seldom found too large for the men of the present day; whilst the prevalence of armour too small for the great bulk of our soldiers leads to the supposition that recently the Anglo-Saxon has gained upon the stature of his ancestors.

Of races in which the stature is below the average, we may instance the Hottentots, amongst whom four feet is the average height of the female, and four and a half feet that of the male. The Bushmen are of even smaller stature. But this is not a general feature of the races of Africa; for we find the Kaffirs a strong and powerful race, with an average height as great as that of the European. We observe the same differences amongst the races of America. The Peruvians in the south, and the Esquimaux in the north, are of diminutive stature; whilst the Carribees, the Cherokees, and more especially the Patagonians, usually attain a greater than the average height. With regard to the Patagonians-they are undoubtedly a tall race of people, but their size has been much exaggerated. Byron gives an account of one whom he judged to be seven feet in height. Bougainville says, "Among those whom we saw, not one was below five feet ten inches and a quarter, nor above six feet two inches and a half in height." It is curious that the Patagonians should be accompanied by a race

the inhabitants of Terra del Fuegowhich are almost as much below the aver age stature as the Patagonians are above. This is, however, precisely what we see occurring in the Kaffirs and Bushmen of the south of Africa.

There can be no doubt that physical power-that is, the strength possessed by

the muscles-is a great element of national peculiarity. This subject has not been much studied; but there is a popular notion that physical power diminishes with civilization; and, at any rate, it might be supposed that the largest races would be the strongest. These suppositions, however, do not appear to be correct. The only direct experiments that we are aware of, are those of Peron, who performed a series of experiments with a dynamometer, on men of different nations, with the following result:

Strength of the Arms. Kilogrs.

Strength of

the Loins, Kilogrs.

There can be no doubt that the regular habits, and the constant supply of good nutritious food, in civilized communities, tends greatly to maintain the strength of their inhabitants; whilst we must allow that there is an innate quality of muscle which cannot be judged by size, on which its power depends.

HISTORIC TALE OF ANCIENT BRITAIN.

SECOND SCENE IN THE LIFE OF CLAUDIA.

The way was long and toilsome: and their march
Led over hill and dale, by rock and flood;
Where neither wreathing smoke, nor bark of dog,
Did note of living men.

OSTORIUS had already despatched one Codrius-a general of acknowledged probity—to find, if possible, the retreat of the wife and family of the British chief, and to bring them safely to head quarters. “ Guard them well," he said, "and treat them with the utmost courtesy, as befits their rank. Caractacus has resisted, for a length of time, the power of the Romans; his fame is not confined to his native country, it has passed into the provinces, and spreads even over Italy. My purpose is, that when the honour of a triumph justly awarded me, Rome shall behold the man who has defied her legions."

* From duvaμes, power, An instrument to measure strength.

Codrius accordingly set forth with a detachment of soldiers. The way was long and perilous, and his footsteps were continually beset with hostile bands, who sought to prevent his onward progress: at one time they were put to flight; at another, gold subdued them, and they treacherously lent their aid to promote the designs of Codrius. Thus went on the armed bands, through woods and over mountains, now crossing impetuous torrents, and again treading cautiously along the margin of vast forests, where every step was fraught with danger, till they reached the country of the Silures. Here all hope of being able to discover the objects of their search seemed to fail; the villages were without inhabitants, and when they entered a stone hut, in the expectation of finding some one to guide them, not a living creature was to be seen. The flocks and herds were driven away; the faithful wolf-dog no longer guarded his master's dwelling, and the footprints of the troops were lost among the tangled herbage, which often extended far as the eye could reach. The farther they advanced, the more desolate became the aspect of the country; torrents rushed impetuously from chasms in the rocks, and dark forests frowned over abysses of which the depth could not be readily discerned; wagon tracks, which had served occasionally, in more cultivated parts, to aid the soldiers in finding the native settlements, now eluded their utmost vigilance, neither could they discover the slightest trace of men animals throughout that land of rock and flood.

or

The Roman officer knew not where to direct his search, and yet he was very unwilling to return without accomplishing the object of his mission. "If I fail in this," he said, “Ostorius will be prevented from realizing his most anxious wish, and I shall lose the honour of conducting the family of Caractacus through the streets of Rome : yet what to devise, I know not: the evening of each day ends in disappointment, and we rise to recommence a fruitless search, amid wilds that seem interminable." Thus spoke the officer, when resting with his men on a grassy area, half way up the rugged side of a wild mountain, covered with oaks and brushwood. The pioneers had cut their way with hatchets, clambering