There is considerable difficulty in fixing with precision the chronology of these reigns. It seems a settled point, that the Saite dynasty terminated B. C. 408. The lists give but twenty years and four months for the twenty-ninth dynasty; and yet there are many reasons for placing the accession of the thirtieth dynasty B. C. 380, instead of 388 or 387 B. C. One of the most important of these reasons is the circumstance, which has, been strongly urged, that Nectanebus II. was only in the eleventh year of his reign when Ochus, B. C. 350, expelled him from the kingdom, and again subdued Egypt to the dominion of Persia. Yet it is not easy to reconcile this with the fact, that all the lists state the reign of the last of the Pharaohs to be eighteen years: and as, throughout, the authority of the ancient records has been admitted, so here I have adopted them as the safest guides.

The first event of consequence in the history of Egypt under this dynasty which meets our notice, is a Persian invasion of a most formidable character: the more so, because the oriental troops were strongly supported by an army of Greeks under Iphicrates. The Persian commander was Pharnabazus. With means quite sufficient to subdue the whole country, this expedition was rendered perfectly useless by the jealousy and suspicion which existed between the two generals.

The name of Nectanebus is found at Philæ on a temple dedicated to Athor; and also at Medinet Abou in a small building of elegant workmanship, in which he appears presenting offerings to Amun Re and the other Theban deities. The thirteenth year of this king is mentioned on a stele preserved at Rome.

Teos, or, as he was named by the Greeks, Tachos, was the next sovereign. He had scarcely assumed the reins of government, when he was alarmed by the menacing attitude assumed by the court of Persia. He immediately applied to Sparta for assistance; and Agesilaus, willing to assist a nation friendly to the Lacedæmonians, went himself to Egypt with a strong force of Greek auxiliaries. It appears that the Egyptian king, having heard much of the fame of the Spartan warrior, was greatly surprised to see him a feeble and diminutive old man. He therefore refused to fulfil the intimation which had been given, by placing him in command of the army; but allowed him only the direction of the Greek force, while he put the fleet under the orders of Chabrias the Athenian. Nor was this the only instance in which the famed Spartan found himself grievously disappointed in the prosecution of this enterprise. Tachos, in raising funds for the war, as well as in the appointment of his officers, appears to have been guided by the advice of the sage Athe

nian. But this proved fatal to his cause. While his military policy rendered the Spartan his enemy, his financial measures were not only generally unpopular in Egypt, but peculiarly obnoxious to the priesthood. The Egyptian armament had, in consequence, scarcely commenced operations in Phenicia and Syria, before Nectanebus, nephew of the king, who commanded a section of the army,-advised by his father, who held an important post in Egypt,-revolted; and, being joined by Agesilaus and the Greek troops, compelled Tachos to fly to Sidon. The insurgents then defeated Mendasius, who had been named as heir to Tachos, and secured possession of the throne. Tachos, after having been thus driven into exile, repaired to the palace of the Persian monarch, where he was well received; and, having counselled a Persian invasion of Egypt, shortly after died.

Nectanebus II., having usurped the throne of his uncle, administered the affairs of the kingdom with considerable ability and success. Artaxerxes died in the ninth year of Nectanebus, and was succeeded by his son Darius Ochus. This prince was at once cruel and unwarlike. At first he gave way to indolence, and directed several attacks to be made on Egypt, which were always easily repelled; until, at last, roused by the ridicule which these failures excited, and especially by the defection of the rulers of Cyprus and Phenicia, who, in consequence of his sloth, had despised his power and revolted, he prepared himself for action, and marched, at the head of a formidable force, into Western Asia.

He commenced his operations by reducing Cyprus and Phenicia; after which, having added to his army ten thousand Thebans, Argives, and Asiatic Greeks, he proceeded toward Egypt. In passing the desert, he sustained a serious loss of troops in the quicksands; but he succeeded in reaching Pelusium with a powerful army. Nectanebus had made every possible provision for the defence of his kingdom, and the first operations of the war were conducted on both sides with great spirit. It appears, however, that the Greek auxiliaries in the service of Persia managed to out-general the Egyptian king, and establish themselves in force in the rear of his position. This forced Nectanebus to retire to Memphis,—a measure which compelled the garrison of Pelusium to surrender, and led to the subjugation of the whole country. For Ochus, having behaved with great moderation to the Egyptians who had fallen into his power, and having punished with death some Persian soldiers who had attempted to spoil the garrison of Pelusium, contrary to the articles of capitulation, produced an impression that those who submitted first would be treated best. The people, therefore,

eagerly received him; and Nectanebus was compelled to fly into Ethiopia. Thus was Egypt again completely reduced, and made a province of the Persian empire, B. C. 350.

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The fair promise of leniency and conciliation which the conduct of Ochus gave to Egypt during the war, completely vanished when power was established over that kingdom. He not only imitated the outrages of Cambyses, but greatly excelled him in wanton cruelty. He caused Apis to be killed, dressed, and served up to a banquet, he and his friends feasting on his flesh. He commanded an ass to receive the honours due to the god. He spoiled the temples, taking away gold, silver, and sacred records. The latter were, indeed, restored, but only after extorting a large sum from the priests as the price of their redemption. The walls of the principal towns were razed, to prevent their being formidable in future. Wanton injustice, murders, profanations of sacred rites, and continual persecutions characterized his government; and thus Egypt groaned in affliction until he retired from the country. To show their abhorrence of his memory, the Egyptians substituted for his name, in their catalogue of kings, the figure of a sword, as the emblem of destruction.

Nothing is known of the internal government of Egypt from the departure of Ochus to the invasion of Alexander. The severe character of the administration may, however, be inferred from the fact, that the Macedonian conqueror was hailed with great joy by the people of that country.

Alexander, having established his power in Egypt, had to leave it, for the purpose of prosecuting his gigantic schemes of foreign. conquest. But, prior to doing this, he planned the building of a new city on the sea-coast, to be called after his own name, Alexandria. He made Cleomenes general overseer of this great work, and Dinocrates-who had become famous by rebuilding the temple of Diana at Ephesus, after it had been burned down by Eratostratusarchitect of the buildings. He also settled the government on a

plan as original as might be expected from his genius. Wishing that the land might be governed by its own established laws and customs, he appointed Doloaspes, an Egyptian, the civil governor of the whole country. But, not wishing to intrust him, or any other individual, with all the military power of such an important kingdom, he divided it into districts, and placed the military force of each in the hands of a separate lieutenant. These were all independent of each other; and their power was limited to the several sections over which they were called to preside. Egypt was governed in this manner during the life of Alexander. On his death his four principal generals agreed to place his natural brother Aridæus on the throne under the name of "Philip,"-at the same time appointing themselves to the government of four great divisions of the empire, which they were to rule in the name of the new king. Under this arrangement, Ptolemy obtained Egypt, Libya, Arabia, Palestine, and Cole-Syria, and fixed the seat of his government in Egypt.

Throughout the remainder of this period incessant plots and counter-plots, wars, treasons, and murders, prevailed. In all of these, however, Ptolemy maintained his ground in Egypt. From the first, he aimed at ruling with justice and moderation, and adopted such. measures as not only endeared him to the Egyptians, but induced many of the Greeks to go and reside in Egypt. But this anomalous state of things could not continue long. In 317 B. C., Olympias, the mother of Alexander, having returned to Macedonia, and got the principal power into her hands, caused Aridæus and his wife to be put to death. The youthful Alexander, the son of Roxana, was now called "king," and continued to bear that title until 311 B. C., when Cassander, who had for a long time shut him and his mother up in prison, had them both privately murdered. Thus was terminated even the nominal rule of the family of the great Macedonian.

As the reader has been already informed, Ptolemy ruled Egypt from the date of the death of Alexander the Great, although he did not assume the royal style and title until B. C. 305. For some years indeed after the death of the younger Alexander, there were incessant wars between those generals who had divided the empire among them. In the course of these conflicts Antigonus had wrested Phenicia, Judea, and Syria from Ptolemy; while Demetrius, the son of Antigonus, succeeded in subduing the Island of Cyprus, notwithstanding the utmost efforts of Ptolemy to retain it. But the restless ambition of Antigonus compelled the other generals to form a combination against him; in consequence of which a great battle was fought, near Issus, a city in Phrygia, B. C. 301, in which Antigonus was slain, and his son Demetrius compelled to fly at the head of only five thousand men. This confirmed Ptolemy in his government, and enabled him to consolidate his power, and devote his energies to the internal improvement of his kingdom.

In these efforts he displayed great moderation and practical wisdom. Notwithstanding his intense partiality for Greek manners, he did not attempt to Hellenize Egypt. On the contrary, he revived, as far as altered circumstances would allow, its ancient religion and form of government. He restored the priesthood to a large portion of their pristine power and privilege; renewed the division of the country into nomes; declared Memphis, although not the usual residence of the sovereign, the capital of the country; and its temple of Pthah the national sanctuary, where alone the kings could receive the crown.

These prudent measures were accompanied by a wise and liberal scheme of commercial policy. Under its fostering influence Alexandria rose into great power and prosperity. Merchants from all the neighbouring nations traded thither. Nor did Ptolemy, in his martial, civil, and commercial cares and plans, overlook the higher and more elevating pursuits of learning and philosophy. He planned or erected a splendid museum, or college of philosophy, and supported its professors and teachers from the public funds. These measures were too grand in their scope and character to produce much immediate benefit; but the basis was laid for future prosperity: a seed was sown which produced fruit through succeeding centuries. Another element which contributed in no insignificant degree to the welfare of Egypt was the large influx of Jews who were introduced into the kingdom. This importation was begun in the early part of his government. Enraged that the Jews, who had sworn allegiance to Laomedon, afterward refused to submit to himself, Ptolemy assaulted Jerusalem on the Sabbath-day, and carried away nearly