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G.

THE seventh letter in the Roman alphabet, and began to study the Finno-Tartaric languages, and published, in in the modern alphabets derived from it. For 1833, his Eléments de la Grammaire Mandschoue, a new grammar, the history of the character, see ALPHABET and in which the entire idiomatic character of that language was deletter C. The original and proper sound of G veloped in concise rules. He had, moreover, a share in the estab(corresponding to Gr. 4) is that heard in gun, give, lishment of a journal devoted to Oriental science (Zeitschrift für glad. But the same naturai process which turned die Kunde des Morgenlandes), and contributed to it some interestthe k-sound of e before e and into that of sing papers on the Mongolian language. Along with J. Löbe, he (see C), produced a similar change on G, so that also published a critical edition of the Gothic translation of the before e and i it came to be pronounced by the Latins like dzh. Bible by Ulfilas, with a Latin translation, and with a Gothic glosThe sibilation of the letter g before i followed by a vowel, had be- sary and grammar appended (Leipsic, 1843-1846). Besides a gun as early as the 4th c. A.D., as is evident from the misspelling Syrjan grammar (Grandzuge der Syrjänischen Grammatik, Altenin inscriptions; in the case of c, the change can be detected much burg, 1841), he furnished contributions to periodicals on the earlier. From the Latin, the dzh-sound of g passed into the Ro- Nordvinian and Samoyed languages. He also published some manic tongues, and also into English. As a general rule in Eng- contributions to the science of language, the most important of Esh, in words derived from the classical and Romanic languages, which is his work upon Die Melanesischen Sprachen (2 vols., 7 has the hissing sound before e, i, and y; it has its natural sound 1860 and 1873). The Beträge zur Sprachenkunde, in three parts, in all words before a, o, and u; and it retains it in Teutonic words appeared in 1852, and Ueber das Passivum in 1860. In 1864 even before e and i. he published the Mantchurian translation of the Chinese works, Se-schu, Schu-king, and Schi king, along with a glossary in German. G. knew upwards of 80 languages. He died in 1874.

G, in its proper power, belongs to the order of gutturals, k or e. g, ch, gh; of the two bare' gutturals, g is the flat (or medial), and the sharp; while gh and ch are the corresponding Aspirates (q. v.).

The following are some of the interchanges between g and other letters: Lat. ager, Gr. agros, Eng. acre, Ger. acker; Gr. triakonta, Lat. triginta; Gr. gonu, Lat. genu, Eng. knee; Lat. gnosco, Gr. gignosco, Eng. know; Lat. genus, Eng. kin; Gr. chen, Ger. gans, Eng. goose and gander; Lat. hesternus, Ger. gestern, Eng. yester (day); Lat. germanus, Span. hermano. The convertibility of g and y is seen in the old English participles in y, as rlad, corresponding to Sax. and Ger. ge-; in Ger. gelb, Eng. yel ; Ger. tag, Eng. day; Ger. mag, Eng. may; yate for gate; yard for garden, Lat. hortus. In Italian, gi is substituted for j, as Giulio for Julius, and in French, which has no w, that letter is represented by gu, as guerre, guarder, for Eng. war, ward or guard. G has been frequently dropt out, as Lat. nosco for gnosco; Eng. cough, compared with Ger. genug, agone, with ge-gangen; Lat. magister, Fr. maistre or maître, Eng. master. May, Lat. Maius, contracted from Magius, is from a root mag, or (Sans.) mah, to grow: so that May is just the season of growth. G, in Music, is the fifth sound of the natural diatonic scale of C, and the eighth sound of the chromatic scale. It stands in proportion to C as 2 to 3; is a perfect fifth above C, and the second harmonic arising from C as a fundamental note. In the solmisation of Guido Aretinus, the note G was called Sol, Re, or Ut, according as the hexachord began with C, F, or G. G major as a key has one sharp as its signature, viz., F sharp. G minor has two flats at its signature, viz., B flat and E flat.

GABELLE, a French word, derived from the German Gabe, gift or tribute, and originally used in a general way to designate every kind of indirect tax, but more especially the tax upon salt.

This impost, first established in 1286, in the reign of Philippe IV., was meant to be only temporary, but was declared perpetual by Charles V. It varied in the different provinces. Those that were most heavily taxed were called pays de grande gabelle, and those that were least heavily taxed, pays de petite gabelle. It was unpopular from the very first, and the attempt to collect it occasioned frequent disturbances. It was finally suppressed in 1789. The name gabelous is, however, still given by the common people in France to tax-gatherers.

Gabion.

GABION (Ital. gabbia, related to Lat. cavea, hollow), a hollow cylinder of basket work, employed in field or temporary fortification, and varying in size from a diameter of 20 inches to 6 feet, with a height of from 2 feet 9 inches to 6 feet. In constructing it, stout straight stakes are placed upright in the ground in a circle of the required diameter, and are then wattled together with osiers or green twigs, as in the formation of baskets. The apparatus being raised, when completed, from the ground, the ends are fastened, and the gabion is ready to be rolled to any place where it is desirable to form a breastwork against the enemy. Placed on end, and filled with earth, a single row of gabions is proof, except the points of junction, against GAAL, JOZSEF, a Hungarian author, was born at Nagy Karoly of rows, any degree of security can be obmusketry fire, and by increasing the number in 1811, studied at the college of Buda, and at the university of tained. The gabion has the advantage of bePesth, and entered soon afterwards the administrative career, being highly portable, from its shape, while with ⚫ing attached to the Hungarian Council of Lieutenancy. G. began its aid a parapet can be formed with far less earth, and therefore writing early, and proved equally successful when gossiping in in less time, than in cases when allowance has to be made for the the columns of Kossuth's famous Pesti Hirlap, and when engaged slopes on both sides, which are necessarily present in ordinary in translating a masterpiece of Cervantes, filling the periodicals with tales and novels, or furnishing original works for the National Theater. The Sketches of country-life as it was, and as it still continues on the vast plains of Hungary, are nowhere to be found more vividly and more truly exhibited than in G.'s comedies and tales. The following are some of G.'s original compositions: Szirmay Ilona, a novel in 2 vols. (Pesth, 1836); Peleskei Notarius The Notary of Peleske, Pesth, 1838), a comedy in four actsmight be called the Hungarian comedy par excellence; Szvatopluk, a tragedy in five acts. Tales: Pusztai Kaland (An Adventure on the Hungarian Prairies); Tengeri Kaland az Alfoeldoen (Seafaring Adventures in Lower Hungary); Hortobágyi éjszaka (A Night on the Heath of Hortobagy). During the sojourn of the Hungarian Diet at Debreczin (1849), G. was editor of a journal combating extreme radical views.

GA'BBRO, the name given by Italian geologists to a variety of greenstone composed of felspar and diallage. It is equivalent to euphotide or diallage rock.

GABELENTZ, HANS CONON VON DER, a distinguished German philologist, was born at Altenburg, 13th October 1807, and eincated at the universities of Leipsic and Göttingen. He then

earthen walls.

The sap-roller consists of two concentric gabions, one 4 feet, the other 2 feet 8 inches in diameter, with the space between them wedged full of pickets of hard wood. In sapping (see MINES), these serve as substitutes for mantlets. small wood; being light in weight, they are rolled before soldiers Stuffed gabions are gabions rammed full of broken branches and in the trenches, and afford some, though not a very efficient, protection against musketry fire.

after being driven back from other more solid positions. In Gabionnade is a line of gabions thrown up by troops as a defence carrying a well-defended fortress, gabionnade after gabionnade has sometimes to be stormed before the besieged can be compelled to surrender.

GABLE the triangular part of an exterior wall of a building bewhole wall of which the gable forms the top is called a gable-end; tween the top of the side walls and the slopes of the roof. The party walls, or the walls which separate two contiguous houses, and which belong equally to both houses, are called in Scotland mutual gables."

The gable is one of the most common and characteristic features of Gothic architecture. The end walls of classic buildings