The two Corneilles were born at Les deux Corneille sont nés à

Rouen.

The Smiths are in Europe.

Rouen.

Les Smith sont en Europe.

France has had her Cæsars and La France a eu ses Césars et

Pompeys.

The Condés, the Bourbons, etc.

ses Pompées (persons like them).

Les Condés, les Bourbons, etc.

2. Collective nouns are general or partitive.

General collective nouns, as, le peuple, l'armée, la foule.... require that the verb should be in the singular; as:

The people are happy over that Le peuple est heureux de cette

good news.

The army was defeated.

bonne nouvelle. L'armée fut défaite.

Partitive collective nouns, as, une foule, a crowd; une infinité, une troupe..., require that the verb should be in the singular, if it is more in relation with the collective itself than with the objects forming the collection; if the verb relates to the several objects, it must be in the plural; as:

A crowd of children approached Une foule d'enfants s'approcha

A crowd of children ran into Une foule d'enfants s'enfuirent different streets. dans différentes rues.

3. When in the same sentence there are two nouns in the objective case, one direct and the other indirect, harmony requires that the shorter be placed first.

But when both objectives are of the same length, the direct comes before the indirect; as:

I have found my pencil in your J'ai trouvé mon

room.

votre chambre.

crayon dans

I found on the table the pencil I J'ai trouvé, sur la table, le crayon

had lost.

que j'avais perdu.

I have sent to M. the books I had J'ai envoyé à M. les livres que

promised him.

je lui avais promis.

D. F. M. 21.

4. When a noun is in the objective case, and limits another noun, the preposition à or de is placed between them.

A is used when for the purpose of, by means of, with, can be understood; as:

De is used when made of, composed of, coming from, of the, belonging to, can be understood; as:

5. In compound nouns, only nouns and adjectives can take the plural.

1st. Both words variable.
Des choux-fleurs, cauliflowers.
Des chefs-lieux, chief towns.
Des basses-cours, poultry-yards.
Des sapeurs-pompiers, firemen.
Des coffres-forts, iron chests.

But when joined by a preposition, as, arc-en-ciel, the first only takes the plural.

2d. One variable. Des contre-poisons, antidotes. Des avant-coureurs, forerunners. Des avant-gardes, vanguards. Un or des essuie-mains, a towel, towels.

Un or des cure-dents, a tooth-pick, tooth-picks.

Des gardes-chasse, game-keepers.

2d. Both invariable, because the noun is singular in meaning.

Des réveille-matin, alarm-clocks. Des casse-tête, tomahawks.

Des abat-jour, shades. [one's self.
Des pour-boire, something for

Des tête-à-tête, private interviews.
Des appui-main, maul-sticks.

SUBSTANTIVES DERIVED FROM VERBS.

Several nouns are derived from verbs; as, fin, end, from finir; don, gift, from donner, etc. They are formed as follows:

1st. By removing the termination of the verb; as:

Finir, fin, an end.

Bondir, bond, a bound.

Sauter, saut, a jump.

Dessiner, dessin, a drawing.

Reculer, recul, a recoil.

Aviser, avis, a counsel.
Chanter, chant, a song.
Refuser, refus, a refusal.
Appeler, appel, an appeal.
Ranger, rang, a rank.

2d. By removing, together with the termination of the verb, the second of the double consonants preceding the termination;

as:

Donner, don, a gift.

Rançonner, rançon, a ransom.

Bourdonner, bourdon, a drone- Recueillir, recueil, a selection.

Conseiller, conseil, advice.

Amasser, amas, a heap.

fly, a great bell.

Travailler, travail, work.

Fusiller, fusil, a gun.

Réveiller, réveil, the awakening.

Bannir, or ban, exile.

Babiller, babil, a prattle.

Pardonner, pardon, a pardon.

Fracasser, fracas, a noise.

3d. In the verbs ending in yer in the infinitive, y being equal

to ii, the noun is formed by removing ier; as:

4th. Some nouns are derived more indirectly from verbs: sometimes by removing only the last letter of the infinitive; sometimes three or more letters; as:

Disputer, dispute, a dispute.
Ruiner, ruine, ruin.

Caresser, caresse, a caress.
Forcer, force, strength.

Congédier, congé, a license.

Retourner, retour, the return.
Contourner, contour, outline.
Sommeiller, somme, a nap.

Ne and pas are both placed before the infinitive mode; as:

I told him not to run.
Try not to be late.

Je lui ai dit de ne pas courir.
Tâchez de ne pas être en retard.

The prepositions de, à, pour, sans, par, require the verb following to be in the infinitive, and not in the present participle, as in English.

He is ashamed of having done that.
I have to go and pay a visit.
Lend me your gun to kill that bird.

They study without complaining.
Let us begin by breakfasting.

Il est honteux d'avoir fait cela.
J'ai à aller faire une visite.
Prêtez-moi votre fusil pour tuer

cet oiseau.

Ils étudient sans se plaindre.
Commençons par déjeuner.

The preposition en is followed, in French as in English, by

To, meaning in order to, i. e., expressing purpose, is rendered by pour before the infinitive; as:

I often have dreams which awake Je fais souvent des rêves qui

me.

have no wrinkles.

me réveillent.

You are older than I, and you Vous êtes plus âgé que moi, et vous n'avez pas de rides. I do not tire so easily as you do. Je ne me fatigue pas autant que

I am said to snore very loud.
As for me, I sleep without dream-

ing or snoring.

Work instead of amusing thyself.
Get ready instead of crying.

What is the matter with that child?

why is he sobbing?

vous.

On me dit que je ronfle très-fort.
Quant à moi, je dors sans rêver

ni ronfler.

Travaille au lieu de t'amuser.
Prépare-toi au lieu de pleurer.
Qu'a cet enfant? pourquoi san-
glote-t-il ?

Because they awoke him too early. Parce qu'on l'a éveillé trop tôt.