CHANCELLOR

The Russian minister of Foreign Affairs is sometimes called Vice-chancellor. Besides these statechancellors, there were officers in many other capacities to whom the title was given. Every bishop has his chancellor in the Church of Rome, and there are still chancellors of cathedrals, dioceses, universities, &c.

Chancellor, LORD. It is usually said that the existence of the office in England, as in the other states of Europe, is to be ascribed to the influence which the constitution of the Roman empire had on the constitutions of the modern nations. This influence was exercised in no small measure through the medium of the church, the profession of the law being generally exercised by ecclesiastics; and it is for this reason, probably, that the bishop and the king are furnished with officers bearing the same title, and exercising analogous functions. Soon after the Norman Conquest the English chancellor became a judicial officer of high rank (see CHANCERY), and a confidential adviser of the sovereign in state affairs. Being charged with the supervision of charters and other instruments, he obtained the custody of the great seal. The office of chancellor, or Keeper (q.v.), which in 1576 was declared to be exactly the same, is created without writ or patent, by the mere delivery of the great seal. The chancellor, if a baron, takes precedence of every temporal lord not a member of the royal family, and of all bishops except the Archbishop of Canterbury. To slay the chancellor is treason. The chancellor is a privy-councillor by his office, and prolocutor, or speaker of the House of Lords, by prescription. Though the form in which his tenure of office is terminated is by the resumption of the great seal by the Sovereign, the chancellor is now always a cabinet minister, and resigns office with the party to which he is attached. He has the appointment of all justices of the peace throughout the kingdom, but this privilege he exercises generally on the recommendation of the lord-lieutenants. But the most important, and, as it now seems, somewhat anomalous branch of his patronage, arises out of his having been originally an ecclesiastic. Though the last bishop who held the office was John Williams, Archbishop of York, who was Lord Keeper from 1621 to 1625, the chancellor still continues to be patron of a large number of crown livings (though in 1863 about 300 were sold to augment the incomes of those sold and those retained), and visitor of all hospitals and colleges of the king's foundation. As representing the paternal character of the Sovereign, again, the chancellor is the general protector of all infants, idiots, and lunatics, and has the supervision of all charitable uses in the kingdom. His jurisdiction in lunacy' is committed to him by special delegation from the Sovereign. As regards his judicial patronage, the arrangement is, that the chancellor appoints in general all the judges of the superior courts, except the chief-justice, who is nominated by the prime-minister of the day. He also appoints the judges of the county courts, and various subordinate officers. All these functions the chancellor performs in addition to his extensive duties as a judge in the House of Lords, the Privy-council, the Court of Appeal, and the Chancery Division of the High Court of Justice. Objection has often been taken to the combination of judicial and political offices in the same person, but the proposal to appoint a minister of justice has not yet found favour. The salary of the chancellor is £10,000 a year, and he has an annuity of £5000 on retiring from office.

Among the notable Lord Chancellors of England have been Cardinal Wolsey (1515), Sir Thomas

More (1529), Bishop Gardiner (1553), Sir Francis Bacon (1617), Hyde, Earl of Clarendon (1660), Ashley, Earl of Shaftesbury (1672), Lords Jeffreys (1685), Hardwicke (1737), Thurlow (1778), Eldon (1801, 1807), Erskine (1806), Lyndhurst (1827, 1834, 1841), Brougham (1830), Cranworth (1852, 1865), Chelmsford (1858, 1866), Campbell (1859), Westbury (1861), Cairns (1868, 1874), Hatherley (1868), Selborne (1872, 1880), Halsbury (1885, 1886), Herschell (1886, 1892). See Lord Campbell's Lives of the Chancellors (1845-47).

The office of Chancellor of Scotland, which was analogous to that of England, was abolished at the Union, a keeper of the Great Seal (q.v.) being appointed. The English chancellor is described as Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain and Ireland; but in Scotland he has scarcely any jurisdiction, and in Ireland there is a separate chancellor, whose powers and duties are similar to those of the English chancellor.

CHANCELLOR OF A CATHEDRAL is an officer who formerly had charge of the chapter library, custody of the common seal, superintendence of the choir practices, and headship of the cathedral schools; sometimes being also visitor of all church schools in the diocese. Hence he was often styled Scholasticus or Capischolius ( = Caput Schola). These functions are now generally in abeyance.

CHANCELLOR OF A DIOCESE is, as legal adviser to the bishop, an ecclesiastical judge, uniting the functions of vicar-general and official principal, appointed to assist the bishop in questions of ecclesiastical law, and hold his courts for him. By an act of Henry VIII. it is provided that he may be a layman, whether married or single, provided he be doctor of the civil law, lawfully create and made in some university. By the canons of 1603 he must be a bachelor of law, at the least, or a master of arts. There are certain cases, however, in which the bishop must sit in person.

For other Chancellors, see UNIVERSITIES, EXCHEQUER, LANCASTER (DUCHY OF).

Chancellor, RICHARD, a daring English seaman, who seems to have been brought up in the household of the father of Sir Philip Sidney, and was chosen in 1553 as captain of the Bonaventure and pilot-general' of Sir Hugh Willoughby's expedition in search of a North-east Passage to India. The ships were parted in a storm off the Lofoden Islands, and Chancellor, after waiting seven days at Vardöhus, the rendezvous that had been agreed upon, proceeded alone into the White Sea, and travelled thence overland to the court at Moscow, where he was very hospitably treated, and was able to conclude a treaty giving freedom of trade to English ships. His interesting account of Russia was published in Hakluyt's Navigations. Next spring Chancellor rejoined his ship and returned to England, where his hopeful reports led to the establishment soon after of the Muscovy Company. In the summer of 1555 he made a second voyage in the Bonaventure to the White Sea, and was at Moscow once more in the succeeding winter. In July 1556 he set sail on his voyage homewards, but on 10th November was lost in the wreck of his ship in Aberdour Bay off the Aberdeenshire coast.

Chancellorsville, a post-station of Spottsylvania county, Virginia, near the south bank of the Rappahannock, 11 miles W. of Fredericksburg. In a desperate battle here, May 2 and 3, 1863, General Lee defeated the Federal forces under Hooker. The Confederates, however, suffered a severe loss in

Stonewall Jackson,' who was accidentally wounded by his own men. See JACKSON (T. J.) Chance-medley and Chaud-medley are law expressions, which practically both mean the

CHANDLER

(1776). Chandler was made D.D. in 1773, and afterwards held preferments in Hants and at Tilehurst, near Reading, in Berks, where he died 9th February 1810.

Chandler, SAMUEL, an English Nonconformist divine, born at Hungerford in 1693, became minister of a Presbyterian church at Peckham, and preached at the Old Jewry from 1726 until his death in 1766. He was an industrious writer, and published especially a large number of works relating to the deist controversy and to catholicism.

Chandor, a town in the province of Bombay, 40 miles NE. of Nasik. Its fort, commanding an important pass on the route between Khandesh and Bombay, crowns a hill 3994 feet high. It surrendered to the British in 1804, and was finally ceded by Holkar in 1818. Pop. 4892.

Chandos, a great English family, descended from a follower of William the Conqueror, the last representative in the direct male line being Sir John Chandos (died 1428), whose sister married one Giles Brydges. Their descendant, Sir John Brydges, was lieutenant of the Tower under Queen Mary, and was created Baron Chandos in 1554. James Brydges (1673-1744), eighth Lord Chandos, sat in parliament for Hereford from 1698 to 1714, and was created Duke of Chandos in 1719. The lucrative post of paymaster of the forces abroad (170712) supplied means for building a palace at Canons, near Edgware, which cost £200,000, but was torn down at the duke's death. Here Handel lived two years, and produced Esther.' In 1796 the title passed by marriage to the Grenvilles, till 1889 the Dukes of Buckingham and Chandos. See Memoir of first Duke by J. R. Robinson (1893).

Chandpur, a town of British India, in the North-west Provinces, 19 miles S. of Bijnaur. Pop. 11,182.

Chandragupta. See SANDROCOTTUS. Changarnier, NICOLAS ANNE THÉODULE, a French general, born at Autun in 1793, was educated at Saint-Cyr, and went in 1830 to Algeria, where for eighteen years he saw all the active service there was to be seen. On the proclamation of the Republic in 1848 he acted as provisional governor-general of Algeria, but returned to Paris to take command of the garrisons of Paris and of the National Guard. He did much to check the outbreaks of the anarchist party during 1849. In the Legislative Assembly he held a sort of neutral position between the Orleanists and the Legitimists, whilst opposing the Bonapartist party. At the coup d'état in December 1851, after being imprisoned in Ham, he went into exile till the FrancoPrussian war, when he offered his services to Napoleon III. He was in Metz with Bazaine, and, on its capitulation, retired to Brussels. returned to France in 1871, entered the Assembly, and assisted M. Thiers in reorganising the army. He died at Versailles, February 14, 1877.

He

Chang-Chow, a city of China, in the province of Fo-kien, 28 miles W. by S. of Amoy. Pop. estimated at 1,000,000.

Chang-Chow, a city of China, in the province of Kiang-su, about 50 miles E. by S. of Nanking. Pop. 360,000.

This superstition is alluded to by Shakespeare, Spenser, and other poets, and is an essential part of the doctrine of fairy-lore almost everywhere. See Sikes's British Goblins (1879).

Chang-Sha, a city of China, capital of the province of Hu-nan, on the Heng-kiang, a tributary of the Yang-tse. Pop. 300,000.

Chank-shell (Tsjanka), the popular name of the shell of several species of Turbinella, a genus of (Prosobranchiate) Gasteropod molluscs, natives

Channel, THE ENGLISH (La Manche, 'Sleeve,' of the French, and the Mare Britannicum of the Romans), is the narrow sea which, since the glacial period, separates England and France. On the east, it joins the North Sea at the Strait of Dover, where it is narrowest, being only 21 miles wide from Dover to Cape Gris-Nez. From this strait it runs west-south-west for 280 miles, and joins the Atlantic Ocean at the Chops, with a breadth of 100 miles between the Scilly Isles and Ushant Isle. With an average breadth of 70 miles, it is 90 miles wide from Brighton to Havre; 60 miles from Portland Bill to Cape La Hague; 140 miles-its greatest breadth from Sidmouth to St Malo; and 100 to 110 miles west of the latter line. It occupies 23,900 square geographical miles, and contains the Channel Isles, Ushant Isle, Isle of Wight, and many islets and rocks, especially off the coast of Brittany. It is shallowest at the Strait of Dover, where a chalk ridge at the depth of twelve to thirty fathoms joins England and France. West of this, the average depth of the central portion is thirty fathoms, with hollows from forty to sixty-two fathoms deep. The English coast-line of the Channel is 390 miles long, and the French coast-line is 570 miles long. Westerly winds prevail, and the current, though imperceptible, is always from west to east. The English Channel abounds in fish, of which the chief are pilchard, mackerel, and oysters. See CHANNEL TUNNEL.

Channel Islands, THE, a group of small islands off the NW. coast of France, which formed part of the old duchy of Normandy, and has remained subject to the British crown. The nearest points are about twelve miles from the French coast. The principal islands are four in number

or 'jurats,' as they came to be called; and the whole assembly was presided over by a bailiff, or lieutenantgovernor appointed by the crown. There was also a lord-lieutenant, comes, or governor, but he was often an absentee. In the process of time this latter post became chiefly titular; the office of lieutenant-governor was separated from that of bailiff, though the two were occasionally held by the same person, and a regular system of judicial and executive administration came into action. From the time of John to that of Henry VI., many attempts were made by France to conquer the islands. Guernsey was held by the French for some years during the 14th century, though finally reconquered by the English with help from Jersey. In 1461 Jersey itself was conquered, and was held by a French governor for about six years, being finally liberated early in the reign of Edward IV. by Sir R. Harleston. Henry VII. carried his repression of the aristocracy into the islands, where he curtailed the feudal jurisdictions and did something for the popularisation of the militia. The Reformation took early and deep root in the Channel Islands, aided by a considerable immigration of exiled Huguenots from the mainland; but the Anglican ritual was not introduced without difficulty. For most of the time the islands continued subject to the spiritual sway of the Bishop of Coutances; but in 1568 Elizabeth attached them to the diocese of Winchester. Other effects of Elizabeth's reign are the foundation of the college (grammar-school) of St Peter Port, in Guernsey, the grant of Sark to the Carterets of Jersey, and the improvement of the Castle of St Helier, in Jersey, which, like the Guernsey College,' still bears the name of the virgin queen.

During the reign of Charles I. Guernsey sided for the most part with the English parliament, Jersey with the crown. In the former island, however, Castle Cornet, which commands the harbour, held out for Charles, and was not reduced until after Jersey had been conquered. This took place in 1651. Under the Commonwealth the Channel Islands continued to enjoy their old privileges, being specially excluded from the

Instrument of Government,' and from the operation of the excise, because not governed by our laws, but by municipal institutions of their own (Burton's Diary).

In the reign of Charles II. the Channel Islands were once more threatened by France, and the militia was improved and formed into regiments. The total population of the Channel Islands was then about 25,000; and the chief towns began to increase in importance. The reign of William III. witnessed the famous victory of the British navy at Cape La Hogue, largely due to information conveyed to the admiral by a gentleman of Guernsey. The privilege of neutrality was taken from the inhabitants-to whom it had ceased to be useful-and they entered upon a course of privateering, which made them, in the words of Burke, one of the naval powers of the world.'

of a partial occupation of the islands by Saxon and Danish sea-rovers. Guernsey is named in the Edda, and arms of Viking character have been dug up there. The islands were probably used as depôts in the conquest of Neustria by the Northmen. Some time elapsed after that event, during which they continued subject to Brittany, but in the early part of the 10th century A.D. the Cotentin was added to the duchy of Normandy, and the islands followed in the annexation. The institutions then introduced were those already established on the mainland of Normandy-derived from the Frankish legal system as it existed when the duchy was first separated from the Frank empire by the treaty of St-Clair-sur-Epte (Stubbs's Const. Hist. i. § 92). The feudal system, however, was only partially introduced. The parishes did not become manors -as happened in England after the Conquest-nor did the Norman seigneurs make a general practice of residing in the islands. They drew rents as absentee landlords from the allodial proprietors who, willingly or otherwise, accepted their protection. But these did not yield military service; and the island militia, when formed, adopted and preserved, till comparatively recent times, a parochial organisation. The 12th century is the beginning of the authentic history of these singular little communities, and of the ecclesiastic organisation already transferred from the see of Dol to that of Coutances. When Philip Augustus declared the duchy of Normandy forfeit on the ground of the alleged contumacy, as a vassal, of John Lackland, he also pronounced the confiscation of the fiefs of those seigneurs who might adhere to John; some of these then settled in Jersey, where they formed the chief notables and members of such local government as might be in existence. John confirmed and strengthened the privileges of this body, and appointed coroners sworn to watch over the judicial interests of the crown. By degrees the seigneurs ceased to attend the sittings of the states, where the rural population was represented by the constables or mayors of the parishes or communes: these, together with the rectors, became associated with the coroners,

In 1781, after the French had espoused the cause of the revolted British colonies in America, a semiofficial landing took place in Jersey, headed by an adventurer named Macquart, styling himself Baron de Rullecourt. His defeat by Major Pierson, who fell in the engagement, has been rendered famous by Copley's picture in the National Gallery. Since then the chief event has been in Jersey the introduction of elected deputies into the legislature (1856). In the reign of William IV. the militia of the Channel Islands was declared 'Royal.' Queen Victoria visited them in 1849.

The present constitution of the islands is a development of the ancient institutions, slowly modified to meet changes in surrounding circum

CHANNEL ISLANDS

stances. The people, especially in Guernsey and Jersey, adhere to their old speech, a dialect of the ancient Langue d'oil, which was once a literary language. Its best-known monument is the Roman de Rou of Wace, a native of Jersey, who wrote in the 12th century. In our own days it has been revived by the late Georges Métivier, who has been called the 'Guernsey Burns.' The late Sir Robert Marett was also the author of many poems written in the Jersey form of the language. The basis of the local law is the Coûtumier de Normandie, which is prima facie evidence of the common law. Besides this, the local states enact statutes of two kinds-their bylaws (called 'ordonnances'), having force for three years without royal assent, and organic statutes, which must be sanctioned by the crown. The French language, in its modern shape, is the official language of the states and of the law courts; and a French service is held in the parish churches.

The administration, generally speaking, is of the usual two sorts, the executive and the judicial. The principal officer is the general commanding the troops in each bailiwick, of which Jersey is one, and Guernsey, with its dependencies Sark and Alderney, the other. He is called lieutenantgovernor, and is appointed in that capacity for five years. The chief civil officer is the bailiff, who presides in the executive and legislative assemblies, represented when absent by a lieutenant-bailiff. In judicial matters the bailiff is also the chief, the superior courts being formed by a quorum of the jurats. In matters of legislation the states are constituted in Jersey of the twelve jurats, twelve rectors, twelve constables, and fourteen deputies; but in Guernsey almost all power has been retained by the royal court. The other crown officers are the attorney-general, the solicitor-general, and the viscount or prévôt, who have a right of sitting in the states, but not of voting.

The Channel Islands, as already mentioned, are attached to the diocese of Winchester, but each bailiwick has its own dean. The livings are in the gift of the crown, but are of small value. The administration is, to a great extent, gratuitous; such offices as are not so being paid chiefly out of the local revenues of the crown. These islands have compulsory military service within their own limits about one-tenth of the population being in the ranks or the reserve of the militia. Their immunities have been fully and frequently recognised, and much loyalty to England is consequently felt. The industry, thrift, and prosperity of the inhabitants have been testified to by recent observers. Their holdings are small, but the agricultural population consists chiefly of yeomen-proprietors who labour with their own hands. The towns are busy and populous, and the houses, both there and on the farms, are large, substantial, and well kept. The taxation is trifling, the customs duties being very light. Living is very cheap. Communication with the ports of the south of England is regular and frequent.

Geology.-Most of the islands are composed of primary or granitic rocks. Alderney is a mass of syenite, with hornblende, porphyry, and occasional sandstone. The structure of Guernsey is hard syenite to the north, and gneiss to the south. The geology of Jersey is more varied, presenting a mixture of metamorphic rocks, conglomerates, and sandstones, with syenites and quartzites. Shale and blown sand are also prevalent. Sark is composed of very hard syenite, with veins of greenstone and felspar. Granite is quarried from all the islands, especially from Guernsey, Herm, and Mont Mado in Jersey, both for home use and for exportation.

The scenery is exquisitely varied and beautiful;

probably in no other area of similar size could be found such a combination of savage rocks and pleasing landscapes.

The climate is agreeable and suitable to invalids. The prevailing winds are from north to northwest. The mean annual rainfall is 35 inches in Guernsey; but the climate is not over moist, the soil being porous, and evaporation rapid. The mean annual temperature of Jersey is 50'8°; of Guernsey, 50.5°, or about 2° warmer than Greenwich. The range of temperature is very moderate; but the climate of Guernsey is rather more equable than that of Jersey. August is the hottest month; February the coldest. Frost and snow are rare. The autumns are very beautiful; and a second summer, called the Petit Eté de Saint Martin, generally sets in about the 10th of October, and lasts till the middle of December. Flowering plants and shrubs are about a fortnight earlier in the spring than in England. The sunshine averages nearly six hours a day throughout the year.

The produce of the islands is principally agricultural; but horticulture and floriculture are successfully followed-the latter especially in Guernsey. The soil is generally light, deep, and fertile. The system of cultivation is very primitive. The principal manure is seaweed, which is gathered in vast quantities from the shores at certain seasons under strict regulations. Its annual value to Guernsey alone is estimated at £30,000. A great quantity is burned for the manufacture of kelp and iodine.

The land is held in small parcels ranging from five to twenty English acres. The principal crops are potatoes, hay, wheat, turnips, mangel-wurzel, parsnips, and carrots. The Channel Islands are famous for excellent breeds of horned cattle, usually known as 'Alderneys,' though each island has its own speciality (see CATTLE). The other main articles of exportation are granite, fruit, and early potatoes.

There are no good recent books on the Channel Islands. Physical phenomena will be found treated of by Professor Ansted in The Channel Islands (4th ed. 1896). Useful historical information will be found in Le Quesne's Constitutional History of Jersey (1856), and Tupper's History of Guernsey (1876). See the separate articles on ALDERNEY, JERSEY, GUERNSEY, and SARK.

Channel Tunnel. The proposed tunnel under the narrow channel dividing England and France, which countries in very early geological times were united, would be 23 miles long, including land-approaches. It would be made entirely through and within the area of the old gray chalk,' or craie de Rouen, as designated by French geologists. This bed of chalk extends from shore to shore. It consists of a mixture of 65 per cent. of chalk and 35 per cent. of clay, and is therefore impervious to water; though the experimental works have shown cracks here and there which exude for a time a fresh or brackish water, apparently imprisoned for ages in these small fissures. While the experimental works have been suspended most of these fissures have run themselves dry. The French Tunnel Company, who possess a concession for making a tunnel to the middle of the Channel, and the English Tunnel Company, associated under limited liability,' have made many thousand soundings and experiments, and consider it proved that the gray chalk' is not only in the same position and of the same thickness and consistency on each side of the Channel, but that no erosion or fault interfering with continuity exists as between the two coasts.

The experimental works, already executed by a headway of 7 feet diameter on the English side, have been extended by the using of a boring machine,' from the foot of Shakespeare's Cliff, near Dover,