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CATHA

to putrefaction, and the consequent development of offensive odours, it is customary to subject the catgut to the fumes of burning sulphur-i.e. sulphurous acid, which acts as an Antiseptic (q.v.), and arrests decomposition. The best strings come from Italy, and are used for musical instruments. These are known as Roman strings, but they are made in several Italian towns, the most valuable coming from Naples. About 10 per cent. of the violin strings manufactured are false-i.e. they produce two sounds. Gut strings for musical instruments become useless after being kept a few years. Cord for clockmakers is made from the smallest of the intestines, and occasionally from larger ones, which have been split longitudinally into several lengths. The catgut obtained from the intestines of horses, asses, and mules is principally made in France, and is employed in the same way as leather belts for driving lathes and

other small machines.

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In Thrace it found a kindred sect in the Paulicians

Cathari (Gr., 'pure'), or CATHARISTS, a name assumed by a widely diffused Gnostic sect of the middle ages, which took its rise most probably among the Slavs in Southern Macedonia, and spread over the whole of Southern and Western Europe. (q.v.), who had been transported thither about 970, and they were there known as Bogomili (q.v.). In the second half of the 12th century they were in great strength in Bulgaria, Albania, and Slavonia, and divided into two branches, distinguished as the Albanensians (the more extreme section), and the Concorezensians (named from Goriza in Albania). It is remarkable that the name Bulgari, by which they were known to the returning French crusaders, is the origin of the low French word Bougre, just as the German word for heretic' (Ketzer) is derived from Gazzari, the Lombard form of Cathari. In Italy the heresy first appeared at Turin about 1035, and existed down to the 14th century. Its adherents were called Patarini, from Pataria, a street in Milan frequented by rag-gatherers, where they held their secret meetings in 1058. The Cathari reached their greatest numbers in Southern France, where they were commonly called Albigenses (q.v.) or Poblicants, the latter term being a corruption of Paulicians, with whom they were confounded. After the great Albigensian wars, they were gradually rooted out by the Inquisition, and after the first half of the 14th century they disappear from history. The Cathari based their teaching on the New Testament and an apocryphal Vision of Isaiah' and 'Gospel of John.' The only extant Catharist writing is a short ritual in the Romance language of the 13th-century troubadours (printed at Jena in 1852 by Professor Cunitz from the MS. at Lyons). All the Cathari held more or less Manichæan views, and practised a rigid.asceticism. Deliverance from evil was only to be attained by renunciation of the (material) world, including marriage, property, and the use of animal food. They distinguished between the great mass of their Credentes or Believers,' and the Perfecti, who had received the Baptism of the Spirit by the laying on of hands, called Consolamentum, because in it the Comforter was imparted. These 'pure' ones, estimated at only 4000 in all Europe about the year 1240, formed the Catharist Church-the 'only true and pure church on earth.' Their worship was

CATHARINE DE' MEDICI 9

extremely simple, and their church government was by bishops (each with two assistants, the Filius Major and the Filius Minor) and deacons.

See C. Schmidt, La Secte des Cathares (1849); Lombard, Pauliciens et Bons-hommes (1879); Lea, History of the Inquisition (1888); and Dollinger, Sektengeschichte (1889). Catharine, the name of several Christian saints: (1) St Catharine proper, a virgin of royal descent in Alexandria, who publicly cona sacrificial fessed the gospel at feast appointed by the Emperor to death, after they had vainly Maximinus, and was therefore put attempted to torture her on toothed wheels, 307 A.D.

Hence the name

of Catharine wheel.' No less than

fifty heathen philosophers sent by the emperor to convert her in prison were themselves converted by her winning eloquence; whence she is the patroness of philosophers and learned schools. Having steadily rejected all offers of earthly marriage, she was taken in vision to heaven, when the Virgin presented her to her son, and Christ plighted his troth to her with a ring. This subject has been a favourite one with many artists (as signifying the union of the redeemed soul with Christ); the Christ being usually represented as an infant. It has been suggested that the attributes of the unhistorical St Catharine seem to have been derived from those of the actual Hypatia (q.v.), a heathen who suffered death at the hands of 25th November. (2) St Catharine of Sienna, one of the most famous saints of Italy, was the daughter While yet a child she practised extraordinary of a dyer in Sienna, and was born there in 1347. mortifications, and devoted herself to perpetual virginity. She became a Dominican, and therefore afterwards a patron saint of the Dominicans. Her enthusiasm converted the most hardened sinners, and she was able to prevail upon Pope Gregory XI. for the sake of the church to return from Avignon to Rome. She was favoured, it was said, with extraordinary tokens of favour by Christ, whose Stigmata (see STIGMATISATION) were imprinted upon her body. She wrote devotional pieces, letters, and poems, an edition of which is Tomasseo's (Florence, 1860). Her festival falls on 30th April. ed. 2 vols. 1899).-St Catharine of Bologna (1413See Drane's History of St Catharine of Sienna (3d 63; festival 9th March) and St Catharine of Sweden (died 1381, festival 22d March) are of less note.

Christian fanatics. St Catharine's festival falls on

Catharine de' Medici, the wife of one king of France, and the mother of three, was the daughter of Lorenzo de' Medici, Duke of Urbino, and was born at Florence in 1519. In her fourteenth year she was brought to France, and married to Henry, the second son of Francis I. The marriage was a part of the political schemes of her uncle, Pope Clement VII., but as he died soon after, she found herself friendless and neglected at the French court. In these circumstances she conducted herself with a submission which seemed even to indicate a want of proper spirit, but which gained her the favour of the old king, and in some measure also of her husband. The accession of the latter to the throne of France, however, made very little difference in her situation. It was not till the accession of her eldest son, Francis II., in 1559, that she found some scope for her ambition. The Guises at this time possessed a power which seemed dangerous to that of the throne, and Catharine entered into a secret alliance with the Huguenots to oppose them. On the death of Francis II. in 1560, and accession of her second son, Charles IX., the govern ment fell entirely into her hands. Caring little for religion in itself, although she was very prone to

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superstition, she disliked the Protestants, chiefly because their principles were opposed to the absolute despotism which she desired to maintain. Yet she sought to rally the Protestant leaders around the throne in order to serve as a counterpoise to the Guises. This attempt having failed, and the civil war which ensued having ended in the peace of Amboise, highly favourable to the Protestants, she became alarmed at the increase of their power, and entered into a secret treaty with Spain for the extirpation of heretics; and subsequently into a plot with the Guises, which resulted in the fearful massacre of St Bartholomew's Day. This event brought the whole power of the state into the hands of the queen-mother, who boasted of the deed to Roman Catholic governments, and excused it to Protestant ones, for she now managed all the correspondence of the court. About this time she succeeded, by gold and intrigues, in getting her third son, afterwards Henry III., elected to the Polish throne. But her arbitrary and tyrannical administration roused the opposition of a Roman Catholic party, at the head of which was her own fourth son, the Duke of Alençon. It was very generally believed that she was privy to the machinations that led to his death. When, after the death of Charles IX., Henry III. returned from Poland to be king of France, his mother still ruled the court, and had the principal share in all the intrigues, treacheries, and political transactions of that wretched time. Having betrayed all who trusted them, she and her son found themselves at last forsaken and abhorred by all. The League and the Guises had no more confidence in them than had the Protestants and Henry of Navarre. Vexation on this account preyed on the proud heart of the queen-mother in her last days; and amidst the confusion and strife of parties, she died at Blois on 5th January 1589, unheeded and unlamented. Catharine de' Medici may fairly be regarded as a representative woman of an age when the first principles of human conduct were hopelessly confounded by religious strife and the intrigues and corruptions of courts. Virtue had given place to luxury, extravagance, cunning sensuality, and cruelty. She was only a prominent example of qualities which the prevailing conditions of the time tended to develop. See Reumont's Jugend Caterinas de' Medici (Berlin, 1854), T. A. Trollope's Girlhood of Catharine de' Medici (1856), Capefigue's Catherine de Médicis (Paris, 1856), and La Ferrière's Lettres de Catherine de Médicis (4 vols. Paris, 1880-92).

Catharine I., wife of Peter the Great, and Empress of Russia. She was a peasant's daughter, and her original name was Martha Skavrouska. The date of her birth is about 1680. Being left an orphan, she was brought up chiefly by a Lutheran pastor, Glück, in Marienburg, Livonia. In 1702 she married a Swedish dragoon, but Marienburg being taken by the Russians in the same year, she was made prisoner, and became the mistress of Prince Menschikoff. She then attracted the notice of Peter the Great. In 1703 she went over to the Greek Church, and took the name of Catharina Alexievna. After being for some years the emperor's mistress, she was privately married to him in 1707; and the marriage was publicly avowed in 1711. When Peter the Great and his army seemed entirely in the power of the Turkish army on the Pruth in 1711, Catharine, according to the common account, managed by skilful bribery to procure the deliverance of the Russians. Catharine was now received into greater favour than ever, and was solemnly crowned in 1712. The story, however, does not rest on sufficient evidence. At anyrate Catharine continued to enjoy her high position till the death of Peter in 1725. The new party con

cerned in promoting the reforms of Peter the Great supported Catharine's claim to be his successor, and she was acknowledged Empress and sole Ruler of All the Russias. Under Menschikoff's direction, the affairs of government went on well enough for a time; but the empress ere long began to yield to the influence of a number of favourites, addicted herself to drunkenness, and lived such a life as could not fail to hurry her to the grave. She died 17th May 1727. See PETER THE GREAT.

Catharine II., Empress of Russia, was born at Stettin in 1729. Her father, the Prince of AnhaltZerbst, was a Prussian field-marshal, and governor of Stettin. She received the name of Sophia Augusta; but the Empress Elizabeth of Russia having selected her for the wife of her nephew and intended successor, Peter, she passed from the Lutheran to the Greek Church, and took (like the Empress Catharine I.) the name of Catharina Alexievna. In 1745 her marriage took place. She soon quarrelled with her husband, and both of them lived a life of unrestrained vice. Among his attendants was a Count Soltikoff, with whom her intimacy soon became scandalous; and Soltikoff was sent on an embassy abroad. But the young Polish count, Stanislaus Poniatowski, almost immediately supplied his place. After the death of the Empress Elizabeth in 1761, Peter III. ascended the Russian throne; but the conjugal differences became continually wider. Catharine was banished to a separate abode; and the emperor seemed to entertain the design of divorcing her, declaring her only son, Paul, illegitimate, and marrying his mistress, Elizabeth Woronzoff. The popular dislike to Peter, however, rapidly increased; and at length, he being dethroned by a conspiracy, Catharine was made empress. A few days afterwards Peter was murdered (July 1762). What participation his wife had in his murder has never been well ascertained.

Catharine now exerted herself to please the people, and among other things, made a great show of regard for the outward forms of the Greek Church, although her principles were, in reality, those prevalent among the French philosophers of the 18th century. The government of the country was carried on with great energy; and her reign was remarkable for the rapid increase of the dominions and power of Russia. Not long after her accession to the throne her influence secured the election of her former favourite, Stanislaus Poniatowski, to the throne of Poland. In her own empire, however, discontentment was seriously manifested, the hopes of the disaffected being centred in the young prince Ivan, who was forthwith murdered in the castle of Schlüsselburg. From that time the internal politics of Russia consisted chiefly of court intrigues for the humiliation of one favourite and the exaltation of another. The revolt of the Cossack Pugatcheff in 1773, though for a time it looked serious, only served to fortify her throne. The first partition of Poland in 1772, and the Turkish war which terminated in the peace of Kainardji in 1774, vastly increased the empire. In 1787 she made a progress in her southern provinces through flourishing towns, villages, and festive scenes; but the whole was a sham, having been got up for the occasion by Potemkin to impress Catharine with the prosperity of her empire. The Turkish war which terminated in the peace of Jassy in 1792 had similar results, and also the war with Sweden, which terminated in 1790. The second and third partitions of Poland, and the incorporation of Courland with Russia, completed the triumphs of Catharine's reign. She also began a war with Persia, and cherished a scheme for the overthrow of the British power in India; but a stroke of apoplexy cut her off, 17th November 1796.

CATHARINE ARCHIPELAGO

She was a woman of great ability, but she had in a large measure the vices of the time and station in which she lived. Her gallantries were both liberal and systematic. She always had a paramour who dwelt in her palace, and might be regarded as filling an acknowledged office of state, with large revenues and fixed privileges. Of these Potemkin (q.v.) is best remembered. Yet distinguished authors flattered her; and she invited to her court some of the literati and philosophers of France. She professed the desire to model her rule on the enlightened theories of these men, and she did effect some real improvements; but the French revolution made her reactionary. See RUSSIA; Catharine's own Memoirs (Eng. trans. 1859): Carlyle's Friedrich; and works by Waliszewski (trans. 1893 and 1894). Catharine Archipelago. See ALEUTIAN ISLANDS.

Catharine Howard. See HOWARD.

Catharine of Aragon, Queen of England, the first wife of Henry VIII., and fourth daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, king and queen of Castile and Aragon, was born December 1485. She occupies a prominent place in English history, not for what she herself was, but for what she was the occasion of the Reformation. Married on 14th November 1501, when scarcely sixteen, to Arthur (1486-1502), Prince of Wales, son of Henry VII., she was left a widow on 2d April, and on 25th June was betrothed to her brother-in-law Henry, as vet a boy of only eleven years old. The pope's dispensation enabling such near relatives to marry was obtained in 1504, and the marriage took place in June 1509, seven weeks after Henry's accession to the crown as Henry VIII. Between 1510 and

1518 she bore him five children, one only of whom, the Princess Mary, survived; but, though Henry was very far from being a model husband, and though he had conceived a passion for Anne Boleyn (q.v.) as early as 1522, he appears to have treated Queen Catharine with all due respect, until 1527. He now expressed doubts as to the legality of his marriage, and set about obtaining a divorce, which, all other means failing, was at length pronounced by Cranmer in May 1533 (see HENRY VIII.). Queen Catharine, who had offered a dignified passive resistance to all the proceedings, did not quit the kingdom, but took up her residence first at Ampthill, in Bedfordshire, and afterwards at Kimbolton Castle, Huntingdonshire, where she led an austere religious life until, on 7th January 1536, she died, by poison said rumour, but most likely of cancer of the heart. Queen Catharine's personal character was unimpeachable, and her disposition gentle. See Froude's monograph (1891). Catharine of Braganza. See CHARLES II. Catharine Parr. See PARR (CATHARINE). Cathartics (Gr. kathairō, I purify '), a name originally for all medicines supposed to purify the system from the matter of disease (materies morbi), which was generally presumed by the ancients to exist in all cases of fever and acute disease, and to require to be separated or thrown off by the different excretions of the body. Ultimately the term cathartics became limited in its signification to remedies acting on the bowels, which are popularly called Purgatives (q.v.)-a mere translation of the Greek word. See also CONSTIPATION.

Cathay is the name by which the Chinese empire was commonly known in Europe during medieval times-in connection with Marco Polo's travels, for example; and Kitai is still the Russian name for China. Cathay, originally Khitaï, is derived from the Khitan, the earliest of the northern races known to have conquered China (possibly akin to the Tunguses), who disappeared about

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the beginning of the 12th century. See CHINA; and Yule, Cathay and the Road Thither (Hakluyt Society, 1866).

Cathcart, WILLIAM SCHAW, first Earl Cathcart, a British general and diplomatist, son of the ninth Baron Cathcart of Cathcart, Renfrewshire, and Glasgow, and admitted an advocate in 1776, was born September 17, 1755. Educated at Eton when he succeeded his father, he next year entered the army, took a prominent part in the American war, and fought with distinction in Flanders and North Germany. In 1803 he was made commanderin-chief in Ireland. In 1805 he was engaged on a diplomatic mission to Russia; in 1807 commanded the land-forces co-operating with the fleet in the attack on Copenhagen, and, for his services, was made a British peer, with the title of viscount, and received a vote of thanks from both Houses of Parliament. Sent in 1813 as ambassador to St the campaigns of 1813 and 1814, and was present at Petersburg, he accompanied the Czar Alexander in the congresses of Chatillon and Vienna. In 1814 he was raised to the rank of earl; and he died June 16, 1843.-His eldest son and successor, CHARLES

MURRAY, long known as Lord Greenock, was born in 1783, served in Spain and at Waterloo, afterwards acted in Canada, and was made a general, GEORGE CATHCART, was born in 1794. Educated He died 16th July 1859.-A younger son, SIR at Eton and Edinburgh, he entered the army in 1812 and 1813, and as aide-de-camp to the Duke of 1810, served with the Russians in the campaigns of Wellington, was present at Quatre Bras and Waterloo. After helping to suppress the Canadian rebellion of 1835, and after holding the post of deputylieutenant of the Tower for five years, in 1852 he was made governor at the Cape, with command of the forces, and brought to a successful end the 1854 in time to be sent out to the Crimea as general He returned to England in harassing Kaffir war. of division. His bravery here was conspicuous, especially in the battle of Inkermann (November British, and where he fell, shot through the heart. 5), where the odds were so terribly against the He was buried on the spot where he fell, which in his honour was named Cathcart's Hill. Cathcart was the author of a very valuable work entitled in 1812-13 (Lond. 1850). See vol. v. of Kinglake's Commentaries on the War in Russia and Germany Invasion of the Crimea.

Cathe'dral, from a Greek word cathedra, signifying a seat. Thus, to speak ex cathedra,' is to speak as from a seat of authority. The cathedral city is the seat of the bishop of the diocese, and his throne is placed in the cathedral church, which is the parish church of the whole diocese. The diocese was, in fact, anciently called parochia, until the application of this name to the smaller portions into which it was divided. Cathedrals vary in rank with the dignity of the see to which they belong, and may be episcopal, archiepiscopal, metropolitan, or patriarchal. Anciently only a cathedral was styled matrix ecclesia, but now this title is applied to all churches, even parochial only, which have other churches or chapels dependent on them. When two cathedrals are found in the same town (as is sometimes the case), they are called 'con-cathedrals.' In the Roman Church the establishment, suppression, or union of cathedrals is reserved to the pope alone. A cathedral town has generally been understood to be entitled to the honours of a city, even although the town be not a borough incorporate; but in the case of Manchester the claim was disallowed by a court of law. The distinction between cathedral and collegiate churches consists principally in the see of the bishop being at the former. The governing body

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of a cathedral is called the dean and chapter-i.e. the dean and canons who meet for corporate purposes in the chapter-house of the cathedral. The property of the cathedral vests in this body. In England they elect the bishop of the diocese on the issue of a congé d'élire from the crown, but as the person to be elected is always named, and they may be compelled by a mandamus to elect that person and no other, the election is merely a form.

The bishop is 'visitor' of the dean and chapter, and the metropolitan is visitor of all cathedrals within his province; while the crown holds that office during the vacancy of the archbishopric. In England, all cathedrals are distinguished as being either of the old or the new foundation. The cathedrals of the old foundation are those which have from the first been served by secular canons; those of the new foundation were originally monastic churches, and served by monks. These were dissolved at the Reformation, being then refounded on the footing of the secular churches. By the Act of 1840, all members of cathedrals, except the dean, are styled canons. Their seat in the cathedral is called their stall. They are no longer called prebendaries in most cathedrals, but this title is retained in the cathedrals of York, London, Wells, Chichester, Exeter, Hereford, Lichfield, St Davids, and St Asaph. In two cathedrals, Lincoln and Salisbury, both titles are used simultaneously, and the holders are styled 'canons and prebendaries.' In all these cases, however, the prebendaries rank below the canons residentiary, and save for their slender prebends, are on almost the same footing as the 'honorary canons' of recent institution, who have no share in the cathedral revenues or government. At St Davids the first cursal prebend' vests in the crown, and the sovereign is senior prebendary of that cathedral. The French kings enjoyed similar privileges in six chapters, and the German emperor was ex officio canon of St Peter's at Rome. Canons must reside three months in each year. The Act of 1840 allows to the canons of Durham, Manchester, St Paul's, and Westminster, an income of £1000 per annum; to those of every other cathedral in England, £500. The bishop was always considered of common right to have the patronage of canonries, but formerly there were exceptions. Now, the appointment to all canonries is vested either in the bishop or in the crown. Where the bishop is patron, he collates,' and the dean and chapter induct,' by placing the new canon in a stall in the church. The crown appoints by letters-patent, and the canon is installed without collation. Honorary canons have no emoluments, but rank after the canons residentiary. Minor canons, of whom there are from two to six in each cathedral, perform the daily choral services; see SERVICE (MUSICAL). For the general plan of cathedral buildings, see CHURCH. The English and Welsh cathedrals, some forty in number, are noticed under their respective cities.

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See Dean Goulburn's Cathedral System (1871); F. H. Allen, The Great Cathedrals of the World (Boston, 1888); W. J. Loftie, The Cathedrals of England and Wales (1892); Mrs Rensselaer, English Cathedrals (1892).

Cathelineau, JACQUES, leader of the Vendeans in their resistance to the Republic, was born at Pinen-Mauge, Anjou, in 1759. A poor linen-merchant at the outbreak of the Revolution, in the spring of 1793 he put himself at the head of a handful of stubborn recruits, and soon became famous for the courage and success of his exploits, the greatest of which was the storming of Cholet. Spite of his own modesty, the supreme command was forced upon him after the victory of Saumur. He immediately determined to make an attack upon Nantes, and managed to penetrate into the town, but was

CATHOLIC

mortally wounded by a musket-ball, and his troops immediately dispersed. He was carried to St Florent, where he died twelve days later, July 11, 1793. Cathelineau was a man of great simplicity and honesty of character, and his piety was such that he was called the Saint of Anjou. Catherine. See CATHARINE.

Ca'theter (Gr. kathiemi, 'I thrust into') was a name applied indifferently to all instruments for passing along mucous canals. In modern times, however, it has generally been reserved for tubular rods through which fluids or air may pass, and is now restricted to those used for emptying the urinary bladder, and those used for injecting air or fluids into the Eustachian tube (Eustachian Catheter). The catheter for the former purpose The ancients is a very old surgical instrument. made theirs of copper, which accumulated verdigris. In the 9th century silver was substituted by the Arabian surgeons as a cleanlier metal, and is still used by all who are not obliged, for economical reasons, to have their catheters made of German silver or pewter. The urinary catheter for the male varies in length from 10 to 11 inches; the female catheter need not be more than 4 or 5 inches. The form is a matter of less importance, but most surgeons prefer an instrument straight to within the last few inches of its length; the latter should be curved into the segment of a small circle. Others, however, use a double curve, and indeed nearly every surgeon has a peculiar fancy in this Flexible catheters are made of gum respect. elastic (see BOUGIES), which may be used either alone or supported on a wire. Many other materials have been proposed, but vulcanised india-rubber is the only one generally in use. The Eustachian catheter is generally made of metal or vulcanite, 6 or 7 inches in length, with the last inch or less It is introduced into the Eusslightly curved. tachian tube along the floor of the nose, and air or fluid, as may be necessary, forced along it by an india-rubber bag which can be attached to it. See DISEASES OF THE EAR, Vol. IV. p. 158. Ca'thode. See ANODE.

Catholic and Apostolic Church is the only name recognised by those often termed 'Irvingites'-a name which they repudiate as implying that they are sectarians and followers of a man. In the winter of 1829-30 the Rev. Edward Irving (q.v.), then a minister of the Scotch Church, Regent Square, London, delivered a series of lectures on spiritual gifts, in which he maintained that those which we are in the habit of calling extraordinary' or 'miraculous' were not meant to be confined to the primitive church, but to be continued through the whole period of the present dispensation. About the same time, as if to confirm the views of the great preacher, there occurred at Port-Glasgow, in the west of Scotland, and elsewhere, certain strange phenomena. It was alleged that miraculous acts of healing had happened, and that the gift of tongues had returned. After what seemed to be a sufficient investigation on the part of some of the members of Mr Irving's church, it was concluded that the manifestations were genuine. Similar manifestations shortly after occurred in his own church, which were also pronounced to be genuine. They were held to be of two kinds 1st, speaking in tongues, and 2d, prophesying. As the former bore no resemblance to any language with which men were conversant, it was believed to be strictly an unknown tongue,' the Holy Ghost using the tongue of man as a sign in a manner which neither his own intellect could dictate, nor that of any other man comprehend.' The latter, 'prophesying,' consisted chiefly of 'exhortations to holiness, light upon Scripture, open

CATHOLIC

ings of prophecy, and explanations of symbols.' In 1831 Irving was deposed from his office for heresy by the Church of Scotland, but meanwhile the truths of which he was so eminent an exponent had been assuming a more definite shape. He died in 1834. It was not till July 1835 that the Catholic and Apostolic Church took definite ecclesiastical shape. With this organisation Irving had no concern, nor had he anticipated it.

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The organisation comprises a fourfold ministry (Ezek. i. and Eph. iv.)-1st, Apostle; 2d, Prophet; 3d, Evangelist; and 4th, Pastor.' The apostles are invested with spiritual prerogatives; they alone can minister the Holy Ghost by the laying on of hands, directly or by delegation; through them the mysteries of God are unfolded to the church; and they decide on matters of order and discipline. Nothing that occurs in any church in the way of prophetic utterance' can be authoritatively explained save by them; and the various angels of the churches' are bound to bring all such utterances under their cognisance. The function of the prophet' has been already indicated. The work of an evangelist' consists in declaring the truths of the gospel, and bringing home to the church generally the principles taught by apostles. The office of the pastor' is that of ministering to the help and comfort of the various members of the flock. The 'angel' of the Catholic Apostolic congregation corresponds in a limited sense to the bishop of other Christian denominations; but he has only the rank of angel pastor in the universal church. The ministers of each full congregation comprise an angel, with a four-fold ministry (consisting of elders, prophets, evangelists, and pastors), and a ministry of deacons to give diaconal instruction and to take charge of temporal matters. The ministry is supported by tithes, the people giving a tenth of their income for the support of the priesthood. The ordinary affairs of the church are managed by the angel in a council of deacons, or if needful, of priests and deacons. The whole organisation is based on the types of the Mosaic tabernacle, in which the constitution of the Christian church is held to have been shadowed forth.

The congregation of this communion do not arro

gate to themselves the title of the Catholic Apos

tolic Church. There is but one church built on the foundation of the apostles and prophets; the members of it throughout the world are not baptised into any section-Greek, Roman, Protestant, established, or non-established-but into the Eternal Trinity. A community of them holding the views above indicated regard themselves as a congregation of the Catholic and Apostolic Church assembling at a given place.

The Catholic and Apostolic Church does not differ from other Christian bodies in regard to the common doctrines of the Christian religion; it only accepts, in what it considers to be a fuller and more real sense, the phenomena of Christian life. It believes that the wonder, mystery, and miracle of the apostolic times were not accidental, but are essential to the divinely instituted church of God, and expressive of its supernatural life, whereby a people are preparing for the second advent of Christ, the hope of which is held in instant expectation. It is held that the end of this dispensation has two phases-the gathering of a first-fruits, and the subsequent great harvest, of which it is the earnest. The doctrine of Symbolism is firmly maintained, of which the most marked feature regards the mystical presence of the Lord under the elements of bread and wine, duly consecrated by the words of the institution and the presence of the Holy Ghost. Both transubstantiation and consubstantiation are repudiated. There

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are services daily at 6 o'clock A.M. and 5 P.M.; prayers at 9 A. M. and 3 P.M.; the litany every Wednesday and Friday; and the eucharist is celebrated every Lord's Day, or, where there are clergy enough, daily. The liturgy, dating from 1842, is mainly based on those of the Greek, Roman and Anglican liturgies, with additional prayers. Lights and incense are used; and the vestments (surplice, alb, cope, chasuble, and stole) are similar to those of the Roman communion. The Catholic and Apostolic Church has established itself not only in the United Kingdom and its colonies, but on the Continent and in the United States.

See the Liturgy of the Divine Offices, and The Purpose of God in Creation and Redemption (6th ed. 1888). Miller's History and Doctrines of Irvingism (1878) is not authoritative, but contains much matter of interest.

Catholic Church. The term catholic literally signifies universal.' The phrase Catholic Church is therefore equivalent to 'universal church,' and cannot properly be applied to any particular Reformed, Lutheran, or Presbyterian, all of which sect or body, such as the Roman, Greek, Anglican, form merely portions more or less pure of the pseudo-Ignatian Epistle to the Smyrnæans. It was first employed from about 160 A.D. to mark the difference between the orthodox 'universal' Christian church and the various sects of the Gnostic heretics; though, afterwards, it served also to distinguish the all-embracing Christian church from the religious exclusiveness of the pre-Christian ages, in which the church was restricted to a single nation. The formal principle of the Catholic Church is thus expressed in the famous canon of Vincentius of Lerinum (434 A.D.), Quod ubique, quod semper, quod ab omnibus creditum est'ie. the marks of the Catholic Church are universality, antiquity, and unity. The name has been retained by the Church of Rome, which claims to be the visible successor of the primitive one; and although Protestant divines have been careful consider essentially changed by the corrupt accreto deny its applicability to a church which they tions of centuries, yet the term Catholic is still used by the populace of almost every Protestant country as synonymous with Roman Catholic, so that from of the word has vanished. For an account of the their minds all conception of the literal meaning Church of Rome, see article ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH.

'church universal.' It occurs for the first time in the

Catholic Creditor, in the law of Scotland, is one whose debt is secured over several or the

whole subjects belonging to the debtor-e.g. over two or more heritable estates. Questions of diffi culty arise where one of these subjects is also burdened with other securities, but the other is burdened only with the catholic security. In such

circumstances the catholic creditor is bound so to exercise his right as not unnecessarily to injure the securities of the other creditors. Thus, if he draw his whole debt from that subject on which there are other burdens postponed to his security, he must assign to the postponed creditors his security over the unburdened subject.

Catholic Emancipation. After the Reformation, both in England and in Scotland, Roman Catholics were subjected to many penal regulations and restrictions. As late as 1780 the law of England-which was actually enforced in 1764-65-made it felony in a foreign Catholic priest, and high treason in one who was a native of the kingdom, to teach the doctrines or perform divine service according to the rites of his church. Catholics were debarred from acquiring land by purchase. Persons educated abroad in the Catholic

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