Chazy Epoch, the name given by American geologists to that division of Silurian time during which the Chazy limestone of New York, Canada, &c. was formed. Cheadle, a market-town in the moorland district of Staffordshire, 14 miles NNE. of Stafford. Lying in a pleasant vale, engirt by wooded hills, it has a parish church, rebuilt in 1837-38, and a Roman Catholic Church, erected in 1846 from designs by Pugin, at a cost of £60,000. Pop. of parish about 5000. CHEESE Emperor Leo. Cyril converted many to Chris- only be explained in the light of a knowledge of tianity in the 9th century. The power of the science, chiefly chemistry. Cheeses may be roughly Chazars was ultimately broken in the 12th century | divided into two great classes hard and soft. by the Byzantine emperors and the Russians. The various English, Scotch, and American cheeses belong to the first class, and are made so that they will generally keep for months, and often continue to improve in quality. Soft cheeses are those which prevail in some parts of the Continent. Many of them require to be consumed immediately after they are manufactured. Their rapid decomposition is associated with a strong and to most people an objectionable smell. Cheese is made from the solids of milk-viz. the casein or chief albuminoid constituent, along with the greater part of the cream or butter-fat, and much of the mineral ash. In fresh milk, which is slightly alkaline, these substances maintain a sort of indescribable union with the watery portion and the milk-sugar-the whole, as is well known, being liquid. The presence of an acid, or of Rennet (q.v.), counteracts the natural affinity of the substances for each other, and the bulk of the solids separate out, forming a soft jelly in the early stages, leaving the bulk of the water containing the sugar as a greenish liquid called Whey (q.v.). The chemical processes involved are as yet only very imperfectly understood. Milk in decomposing, as it rapidly does in hot and sultry weather, becomes sour in virtue of a natural process of fermentation. Rennet induces another form of fermentation which does not end when the product ceases to be milk, but is carried on in the cheese during the period of its ripening or mellowing. In the early stages of the process of hard cheese-making, the incipient acidity which induces that condition in milk termed 'ripeness,' aids and hastens the action of the rennet. As the work proceeds, and the acidity intensifies, it hardens and contracts the curd, giving it a leathery character, thereby aiding in the expulsion of the whey. One of the most important matters in cheese-making is to watch the development of acidity both in the milk and its first product, the curd. If this is allowed to go too far, the quality of the cheese is seriously injured, and its keeping power is reduced. It cracks through becoming too dry and brittle. The delicate flavouring oils seem to be expelled, and the smell becomes high and the taste acrid' or 'biting.' The formation of the acid is one of the great helps in cheesemaking so long as it is kept in due control. If the acid develops rapidly, as in hot weather, in a temperature which suits the germs producing it, the whole process of manufacture has to be pushed on quickly, whereas in cold weather acidity comes slowly, and the operator must wait until it has come sufficiently. Eng Cheating. In the technical language of the English law, cheating means the offence of fraudulently obtaining the property of another by any deceitful or illegal practice short of felony, but in such a way that the public interest may possibly be affected. In order to constitute cheating, the fraud must be of such a kind that it could not be guarded against by common prudence. Cheating, in this sense, is an offence at common law, and indictable, which is not the case with imposition in a private transaction. The law of Scotland has no such distinction. The following are instances of cheating Selling by a false weight or measure (which is also a statutory offence under the Weights and Measures Act, 1878); selling unwholesome bread as if it were wholesome. Cheating seems, therefore, to be distinguished from obtaining property or credit on false pretences by the absence of any definite false statement. Cheating is also technically used in connection with frauds at play with cards or dice, but is popularly applied to almost every form of fraud. In Scots law, cheating is generally prosecuted under the name of falsehood, fraud, and wilful imposition, and has by one authority been called practical cheating, as distinguished from those cases in which a spoken or written false pretence occurs. See FRAUD, FALSE PRETENCES. Checkerberry. See WINTERGREEN. Checquy, or CHECKY, in Heraldry, a term applied to a field or charge divided into small squares by transverse perpendicular and horizontal lines. Checquy or and azure is the coat of Vermandois in France, and of Warren, Earl of Surrey, in land. The wellChecquy. Fess Checquy. known coat of the Scottish family of Stewart, or, a fess checquy azure and argent, is allusive to the checkers of the Steward's board, by which money computations were in old times made. Cheddar, a village in Somersetshire, on the south side of the Mendip Hills, 21 miles SSW. of Bristol by rail. It lies at the entrance of a deep rocky gorge, nearly 1 mile long, whose stupendous limestone cliffs contain caverns-one 300 feet long -filled with fantastic stalactites and stalagmites. For the famous Cheddar cheese, originally made here, see CHEESE. Pop. of parish, 1941. Chedu'ba (or Man-aung), a well-wooded island of Arakan, in the Bay of Bengal, with an area of 240 sq. m., and a pop. (1881) of 23,867. The soil is fertile, rice and tobacco being the chief crops; and petroleum is found in several localities. Cheese is a highly nutritious food substance made from milk by elaborate processes which can There are several methods adopted in inducing acidity. Acid used to be largely added, as sour whey or buttermilk, but greater uniformity is got by delaying until natural acidity develops. This it does most quickly when the temperature of the material is kept up near to blood-heat. Chilly draughts paralyse the active organisms producing acidity. in the early stages of cheese-making by two Heat is communicated to milk or to its products methods-either by warming a portion of the milk 100° F.-say a limit of 150° F.-as to boil it would or whey (though not allowing it to rise much above do injury by changing its constitution), and putting it into the main bulk, or by having an outer shell of wood to the tin or iron cheese-tub, with a space between into which steam or hot water can be injected. This arrangement possesses the additional advantage of being clean and of saving labour, although the cost of the apparatus is greater. When the temperature of the evening's milk requires to be reduced to insure its keeping overnight, as in hot weather, cold water can be CHEESE employed in the same manner as hot water or steam. It would be misleading to fix definite temperatures or assume definite rules of any kind in speak ing of the broad principles and practices of British cheese-making, because there are so many systems which differ materially in important particulars. A thermometer should be used at all times and in all systems. The old method of testing by the hand hardly now exists, and certainly not among good cheesemakers. The ordinary temperatures at which milk is set or steeped vary with the system adopted and the temperature of the atmosphere from 80° to 90°, more or less, is the nearest indication that it is safe to make. High temperatures are used in making deep cheeses, such as Cheddars; low temperatures in making shallow cheeses, as the old-fashioned Dunlops. The Gloucester is a wellknown variety set at a temperature nearer to 80° than 90° F. By setting at too high a temperature the curd gets hard and tough, though it needs a considerable amount of consistency if it is to retain a symmetrical form in a deep cheese. If worked too cold, the curd is soft and the whey difficult to get out of it, the processes of rennet fermentation and acid fermentation do not go on sufficiently, and their work is imperfect. In all cases the greatest regularity in method should be maintained from day to day. After heating, the colouring matter (now almost invariably Annatto, q.v.) is put in. This is not considered an adulteration, as it is innocuous. It in no way improves the quality of the cheese, the effect being only upon the colour. All cheeses are not coloured, though the practice is widespread. | Rennet is put in about the same time, and after thorough stirring for the purpose of mixing these added ingredients, as well as for keeping down the cream, it is left for 40 or 60 minutes. Breaking the curd to let out the whey is the next process. Networks of thin wire, or series of thin knives, are passed through it in various directions with great caution, to prevent the curd substance being carried off with the whey, which would give it a white rather than its natural green hue. As the curd hardens it is more quickly worked and finally broken into small particles, so as to allow the whey to escape. The expulsion of the latter is helped on by the contraction of the curd, due to the gradual increase of acidity. Acidity develops naturally if time is allowed, but it is judicious to hasten it by the addition of warm whey during the process of working. Another method of bringing about the necessary amount of acidity is to expose the curd to the air for a time before it is salted. Salt, besides giving a flavour, stops the action of the acidity in cheese after it has done its work of expelling the whey. If allowed to go on, the acidity would destroy the cheese by curtailing the ripening action of rennet. Excess of salt retards the latter process. After the curd has been broken thoroughly, on being allowed to settle so as to drain off the whey, it adheres together into an india-rubber-like mass; this is ent and broken up into small pieces by its passage through a 'curd-mill.' The finest quality of dairy salt should be used; the crystals being large is an indication of its purity, especially from magnesia salts, which give a bitter taste and otherwise injure all dairy products. The quantity employed is, more or less, about 1 lb. of salt to 56 lb. of curd dry enough to be made up and put into the cheese-press. Its amount should vary with the degree of acidity and the amount of moisture present. In some cases salt is applied wholly or in part dry, or as a brine, to the outside of the cheese after it has been so far pressed. In very rare cases salt is put into the milk before coagulation. 141 The curd is finally packed into a 'chesset' or press vat, which has as a temporary lining a cloth of open texture called a 'cheese-cloth.' The vat, which is a strong wooden or tinned-iron vessel with perforations in the sides and bottom to allow of the escape of any little surplus moisture, is placed in a press, and the cheese subjected gradually to a pressure of about one ton. The curd soon assumes the form in which it is to remain as a cheese. For a few days the cloths are taken off regularly and changed; the cheese being turned over each time to make it keep its shape. Ripening is the next process of importance. Deep cheeses are bandaged, and some are covered with cotton cloths (caps) made to fit tightly. They are then placed in the curing or ripening room, which should be dry, well ventilated, and maintained at an even temperature of about 70° F. There the green indigestible and insipid curd changes naturally into the sweet, mellow, nutty, and full-flavoured product cheese, which, if taken in moderation, and especially towards the end of a meal, is an aid to digestion. The ripening process, which is also associated with drying and shrinkage of about 10 per cent. in weight, varies in length from a few weeks to a few months. Acid cheeses are soon ready for market, and spoil if kept for a long time. Sweet cheeses are slow in maturing, and continue to improve even if kept for years. The tendency in cheese-making both in Great Britain and in America has recently been to early maturity, the strong inducement being that of early returns. The Cheddar system of cheese-making, which first originated in Somersetshire, is, if we embrace Great Britain, Canada, and the United States of America, the most widely practised system of all. The old methods have been much altered in recent times to suit the tendency in the market for early maturity. The following is an account of the system as now practised, with improvements suggested by American and Canadian experience. The cream is removed from the evening's milk after standing overnight, and is only returned to the full bulk immediately before putting in the rennet; the object is to prevent the cream being made oily by heating to a high temperature. The rennet is added at a temperature ranging from 82° to 88° F., but the milk is heated a few degrees above the point fixed upon for steeping, and left to ripen. The temperature falls to the required point meanwhile. The higher range of temperature is adopted when the milk is sweet and recently drawn from the cow. Low temperatures suit old milk or warm weather. If the cheese is to be marketed within twenty days, enough rennet should be added to induce the initial stages of coagulation within eight to twelve minutes. After this it should be left for twelve to eighteen minutes, then breaking begins with the perpendicular and horizontal cutting knives. It is stirred for about fifteen minutes with a hand-rake, and the temperature afterwards raised to 96°-98° F., or even by some up to 102° F. The whole is allowed to settle and remain nearly an hour to 'cook' the curd. As soon as the latter is elastic enough for the particles to retain their independent shapes on being grasped and squeezed by hand, the bulk of the whey is run off. What remains and the curd, still in small pieces, are removed bodily from the steep-tub or vat, and placed in a flat cooler with an inner movable, sparred, false bottom, to secure drainage. The vessel is lined with a cheesecloth. On this the curd is exposed to the air and well worked by hand, so as to press out the whey and keep the particles from adhering to one another at too early a stage. After being well worked and exposed it is left to run together, being covered up nted Mates Tis The mean wen i heese making has been Tu F momve neznamsin in isscention n Se Tum ₫ se actor method a the most eetHome Fmt Tus merton of namumeture was a W ler antisenvery. A a turvas true i de test of the owner. vii et time ens The sons inred and 421juste der mik it the hit fairy, and in time lernens wnet, and the irst actory was esta» istet i 287. inter the management of the onjest We res a course of time the bi 4 int became mesi do a mest lasts. vile the employment of mentres die mairy of the prodaet was The actores were graiA. V net mai me mix of 1200 cows could be vriet min e argest, ani în average factory Se na if Lent: 900) enws One Canaiwer maos 23000) Ta. of eneese yearly im the m€ 1.84 cows. The mar erupies about three months, the temperature té tue emny mom being kept at 65 F. Ce e set, 2 when a large number of ineeses ulat tʼn their sides are pressed at once by CARAMELE DE WreV. A common test by which the ripenese 10 the enzi for pesssure is determined is someing a wina a hot iron. and when long HOLDS A CAva tom the curd by the iron, the enri s ripe Mua 3 bend to the factory twice daily, and is veined and ran into the vat from the delivery window. The milk is either bought by the factory, ne is worked up at a stated charge, or the factory is muuta the co-operative plan in which the net proceeds are divided periodically. Under this factory system the quality of the cheese is uniform and as bith as is secured in any well-managed private dairy. About one-fifth of the cheese pro CHEESE-HOPPER duced in America is made in private dairies in which the same system prevails. There are several other kinds of cheese made in both factories and private dairies, as Edam (the round Dutch cheese), a small cylindrical cheese similar to the English Wiltshire, weighing 10 to 14 lb.; a flat cheese called English dairy cheese, similar to the double Gloucester cheese and coloured as highly; a few Stilton cheese; cream cheeses for immediate nse; and very good imitations of the European Limburger, Schweizer, Neufchatel, Brié, Gouda, Camembert; and some other fancy makes to supply the French, German, and other immigrant popula tion. The cows used in the cheese dairies in the United States and Canada are mostly 'grade' shorthorns, or native cows improved by crosses of shorthorn, Devon, Ayrshire, and Dutch breeds. Jersey and Guernsey cows, and the best of the higher bred animals, are used for the highest class of cheese of the fancy kinds. The profitable exploitation of the dairy in America has raised the value of lands suitable for grazing cows to an average value of nearly $100 (£20) per acre for the fee simple, which is twice as much as that of grain farms. The cheese-dairy business prevails mostly in the states of New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Iowa, and Wisconsin, and in the province of Ontario, Canada. The cows are chiefly fed upon pasturage aided in the latter part of the summer by soiling crops, of which maize is almost universally chiefly depended upon. The cheese-making season begins in April and continues until November. See X. A. Willard's Practical Dairy Husbandry (1875), L. B. Arnold's American Dairying (1877), and Henry Stewart's American Dairyman's Manual. CHEESE-PRESS.-The most common form is the lever press. A powerful steel coil or spring is sometimes substituted for the lever. In large factories the gang press is employed to press a large number of cheeses at one time by means of a powerful horizontal screw. The old method was by placing a heavy stone (hence the name stoning cheese) on the lid of the chesset, or by hanging it by a ring fixed to its upper side from the end of a wooden beam which acted as a lever and passed over the lid of the cheese-press vat. Cheese-hopper, the larva of Piophila casei, a small dipterous (two-winged) fly, of the large family Muscidae, to which the house-fly, blow-fly, &c. belong. The perfect insect is about a line and a half in length, mostly of a shining black colour; antenna, forehead, and some parts of the legs red dish. It is a pest of dairies and store-closets, laying its eggs in cracks or crevices of cheese, the destined food of its numerous, active, and voracious larve. To preserve cheeses from this pest, it is of advantage to brush or rub them frequently, and to Cheese-hopper: times infested. Of these the most notable are the larvæ of the Bacon Beetle (see DERMESTES), and of another species of dipterous fly, Musca corvina. Cheese-mite (Tyroglyphus siro), familiar on old dry cheese. It is a true Mite, and belongs to the division without special breathing organs. The body is rounded behind, conical in front, with a well-marked groove between the second and third pairs of legs, and with relatively long smooth hairs. The male differs slightly from the female, for instance in the possession of two posterior suctorial pits. The larvae have only three pairs of legs, and pass through an immature eightlegged nymph' stage before becoming like the adults. The cheese-mite is not confined to cheese, but attacks dried fruits and the like. See ACARINA (with cut), ARACHNIDA, CHEESE-HOPPER; also Michael, Journ. Roy. Microscop. Soc. 1884, 1885. Cheetah, or HUNTING LEOPARD (Felis jubata or Cynailurus jubatus), an animal of the feline family, distinguished by its longer and narrower feet and less completely retractile claws, which are also more blunt and less curved. It also differs from other Felidae in certain dental characterse.g. of the upper sectorial tooth. With these peculiarities are associated a greater length of limb than is usual in feline animals, and the habit of taking its prey by running rather than by leaping. The cheetah is in size about equal to a leopard, but the body and limbs are longer. The colour is yellowish brown, with black and brown spots. It is very widely distributed, being found in Senegal, South Africa, Persia, India, Suinatra, &c. Its geographic range extends from the Cape of Good Hope as far north as the Caspian Sea and the steppes of The African form is somethe Kirghiz Tartars. times distinguished as C. guttatus, but the differences are trivial. The animal has been long domesticated and employed in the chase, both in Persia, where it is called Youze, and in India. and antelopes are the game principally hunted, and packs of cheetah are kept for this purpose by Indian princes. The head of the cheetah is kept covered with a leather hood till within 200 yards of the game. When the hood is taken off, the cheetah stealthily creeps towards the herd, taking advantage of every bush and inequality for concealment, till, on their showing alarm, he is amongst them at a few bounds, and striking down his victim with a blow of his paw, instantly tears open its throat, and begins to suck the blood. It is then somewhat Deer a, larva, natural size; b, larva, magnified, preparing to spring; difficult to withdraw him from his prey, which is c, perfect insect, natural size; d, magnified. remove all cracked or injured cheeses from large stores, besides keeping them dry and in a well-aired place. The same rules are applicable in regard to the other insect larvae by which cheeses are some generally done by offering him meat. If unsuccessful, the cheetah does not attempt to follow the herd by running-nor does this animal seem to possess the power of maintaining speed through a lengthened chase, but slowly, and as if ashamed, creeps back to the hunters. In a domesticated state it is extremely fond of attention, and seems to kindness with affection. Cheever, GEORGE BARRELL, American e man, born in Maine in 1807, was educat Bowdoin College and Andover Theological nary, and from 1832 to 1870 was pastor of gregational and Presbyterian churches in (Massachusetts) and New York. He del numerous lectures on religious, literary, and questions, and published a number of wor! most popular of which is his Lectures on th grim's Progress (1844), which, with his I ings of a Pilgrim in the Shadow of Mont (1845-46), has had a wide circulation in E. as well as in America. In his prime Dr ( was an active and uncompromising oppor intemperance and slavery. Died October 1, Che-foo (properly the name of the E colony of the Chinese town of Yen-Tai), & port on the north side of the peninsula of Sha at the entrance to the Gulf of Pechili, in is the only port that remains open throug winter. The foreign quarter, with about 1 peans and Americans, is in some sense a Shanghai, and, having the wholesomest e! all the treaty ports, it is much resorted to escents. The Chinese town, built on t shore, with exceedingly dirty streets, has signal-station, and about 32,000 inhabita market for foreign manufactured goods, p English cotton yarn and American shee foo is of great and increasing import annual value of the direct foreign impor £300,000, and, of the exports direct to for £150,000. The principal articles of in those mentioned are sugar, paper, iron weed, matches, and opium. The chief silk, straw-braid, bean-cake, and vermi 2000 ships, of 1,600,000 tons, of which of the tonnage represents British botte enter and clear. The Che-foo Conve settled several disputed points betw Great Britain, and extended certai advantages to the latter country, bes open four new treaty ports, was si tember 1876. Cheiranthus. See WALLFLOV Cheiro 'lepis, a genus of fossi characteristic of the Devonian stra: name, meaning 'scaly-hand,' was to the large pectoral scaly fins. Cheiromys. See AYE-AYE. Cheironectes, an aberrant g (q.v.), with webbed hind-feet and habit. There is but one speci palmatus, or Yapock (q.v.). Cheiroptera ('wing-hand name for the order of bats. Se Cheirothe'rium (Gr., 'ha originally given to the Labyrin the peculiar hand-like impress the Triassic rocks. Cheke, SIR JOHN, one of t learning in England, was b› bridge, and in 1529 obtaine John's College, where he en doctrines. He laboured earn study of the Greek language when a regius professorship at Cambridge in 1540, Cheke occupant. A new mode which he introduced was Gardiner, the chancellor o notwithstanding, Cheke's resembled that still in opposed to the continental |