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faith were declared incapable of succeeding to real property, and their estates were forfeited to the next Protestant heir. A son or other nearest relation being a Protestant, was empowered to take possession of the estate of his Catholic father or other kinsman during his life. A Catholic was disqualified from undertaking the guardianship even of Catholic children. Catholics were excluded from the legal profession, and it was presumed that a Protestant lawyer who married a Catholic had adopted the faith of his wife. It was a capital offence for a Catholic priest to celebrate a marriage between a Protestant and Catholic. Such was the state of the law, not only in England but in Ireland, where the large majority of the population adhered to the old faith. In Scotland, also, Catholics were prohibited from purchasing or taking by succession landed property. The inexpediency and irrationality of imposing fetters of this description on persons not suspected of disloyalty, and from whom danger was no longer apprehended, began about 1778 to occupy the attention of liberal-minded statesmen; and in 1780 Sir George Savile introduced a bill for the repeal of some of the most severe disqualifications in the case of such Catholics as would submit to a proposed test. This test included an oath of allegiance to the sovereign, and abjuration of the Pretender, a declaration of disbelief in the several doctrines, that it is lawful to put individuals to death on pretence of their being heretics; that no faith is to be kept with heretics; that princes excommunicated may be deposed or put to death; and that the pope is entitled to any temporal jurisdiction within the realm. The bill, from the operation of which Scotland was exempted, eventually passed into law. An attempt which had been made at the same time to obtain a like measure of relief for the Catholics of Scotland, was defeated by an outburst of religious fanaticism. The populace of Edinburgh, stirred up by a body called The Committee for the Protestant Interest,' attacked and set fire to the Catholic chapel and the houses of the clergy and of such persons as were suspected to be favourable to Catholic relief. The frenzy spread to England, where a Protestant Association had been formed to oppose the resolutions of the legislature. See GORDON (LORD GEORGE). In 1791 a bill was passed affording further relief to such Catholics as would sign a protest against the temporal power of the pope, and his authority to release from civil obligations; and in the following year, by the statute 33 Geo. III. chap. 44, the most highly penal of the restrictions bearing on the Scottish Catholics were removed without opposition, a form of oath and declaration being prescribed, on taking which they could freely purchase or inherit landed property.

Endeavours were made at the same time by the Irish parliament to get rid of the more important disqualifications, and place Ireland on an equality in point of religious freedom with England. In 1780 Grattan carried his resolution that the king and parliament of Ireland could alone make laws that would bind the Irish, and separation from England was urged as the alternative with repeal of the disqualifying statutes. The agitation culminated in the Irish rebellion of 1798; the union of 1800 followed, which was partly carried by means of virtual pledges given by Pitt-pledges which Pitt was unable to redeem owing to the king's scruples about his coronation oath, and Pitt resigned. Meantime, in England, Catholics continued subject to many minor disabilities which the above-mentioned acts failed to remove. They were excluded from sitting in parliament, and from enjoying numerous offices, franchises, and civil rights, by the requirement of signing the declaration against transubstantiation, the invoca

CATHOLIC EPISTLES

In

tion of saints, and the sacrifice of the mass. the early part of this century many measures were proposed for the removal of these disqualifications, and in 1813 and succeeding years one bill after another for this end was thrown out. Fox, Grenville, Canning, Castlereagh, and Burdett were among those who made efforts in the direc tion of emancipation. Meanwhile, the agitation on the subject among the Catholics themselves greatly increased, and in 1824 it assumed an organised shape by the formation of the Roman Catholic Association' in Ireland, with its systematic collections for the 'Catholic rent.' The Duke of Wellington, who for a long time felt great repugnance to admit the Catholic claims, was at last brought to the conviction that the security of the empire would be imperilled by further resisting them, and in 1829 a measure was introduced by the duke's ministry for Catholic emancipation. An act having been first passed for the suppression of the Roman Catholic Association-which had already voted its own dissolution-the celebrated Roman Catholic Relief Bill was introduced by Peel in the House of Commons on the 5th of March, and after passing both Houses, received the royal assent on the 13th April. By this act (10 Geo. IV. chap. 7) an oath is substituted for the oaths of allegiance, supremacy, and abjuration, on taking which Catholics may sit and vote in either House of Parliament, and be admitted to most other offices from which they were before excluded. They, however, continue to be excluded from the offices of Guardian and Justice or Regent of the United Kingdom, Lord Chancellor, Lord Keeper, or Lord Commissioner of the Great Seal of Great Britain or Ireland, and Lord High Commissioner to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland. As members of corporations they could not vote in the disposal of church property or patronage. But the public use of their insignia of office, and of episcopal titles and names, was denied them; the extension of monachism was prohibited; and it was enacted that the number of Jesuits should not be increased, and that they should henceforth be subject to registration. By the Acts 7 and 8, and 9 and 10 Vict., most of the acts still in force against Catholics were removed; 30 and 31 Vict. removed a still remaining disability, the office of Chancellor of Ireland being thrown open; though a Catholic priest may not sit in the House of Commons. For the prohibition (ultimately repealed) against the assumption of ecclesiastical titles in respect of places in the United Kingdom, see ECCLESIASTICAL TITLES ASSUMPTION ACT. See also O'CONNELL, ABJURATION, ALLEGIANCE; and the History of Catholic Emancipation, by W. J. Amherst, S.J. (2 vols. 1886).

Catholic Epistles, the name given, according to Clemens Alexandrinus and Origen, to certain epistles addressed not to particular churches or individuals, but either to the church universal or to a large and indefinite circle of readers. Originally the Catholic Epistles comprised only the first epistle of John and the first of Peter, but at least as early as the 3d century, and especially after the time of Eusebius, they included also the Epistles of James, of Jude, the 2d of Peter, and the 2d and 3d of John. These seven thus constituted the

Catholic Epistles, although the genuineness and authenticity of the last-mentioned five were not universally acknowledged; but the designation commended itself as supplying a convenient distinction of these letters from the fourteen bearing the name of Paul; and this very incorporation with epistles whose canonicity was not questioned, naturally had the effect of confirming their authority, so that in a short time the entire seven came to be considered a portion of the canon.

CATHOLICS

Catholics, OLD. See OLD CAtholics. Catholikos is the title of the head of the Armenian Church. See ARMENIA.

Catili'na, LUCIUS SERGIUS, the Roman conspirator, was born about the year 108 B.C. of an ancient patrician but impoverished family. His youth was stained with profligacy and crime. He attached himself to the party of Sulla, and revelled in the bloodshed and confusion that disgraced its triumph. His body was capable of enduring any labour or fatigue, and his mind was masterful, resolute, and remorseless. Despite his infamies he was elected prætor in the year 68 B.C., and next year governor of Africa, but was disqualified as a candidate for the consulship in 66 by charges of maladministration in his province. Disappointed thus in his ambition, and burdened with debts, he saw no hope for himself but in the chances of a political revolution, and therefore entered into a conspiracy, including many other young Roman nobles, in morals and circumstances like himself. The plot, however, was revealed to Cicero by Fulvia, mistress of one of the conspirators. Operations were to commence with the assassination of Cicero in the Campus Martius, but the latter was kept aware of every step of the conspiracy, and contrived to frustrate the whole design. In the night of November 6 (63 B.C.), Catiline assembled his confederates, and explained to them a new plan for assassinating Cicero; for bringing up the Tuscan army (which he had seduced from its allegiance), under Manlius, from the encampment at Fæsule; for setting fire to Rome, and putting to death the hostile senators and citizens. In the course of a few hours, everything was made known to Cicero. Accordingly, when the chosen assassins came to the house of the consul, on pretence of a visit, they were immediately repulsed. Two days later, Catiline with his usual reckless audacity, appeared in the senate, when Cicero who had received intelligence that the insurrection had already broken out in Etruria -commenced the celebrated invective beginning: Quousque tandem abutére, Catilina, patientia nostra? (How long now, Catiline, will you abuse our patience?') The conspirator was confounded, not by the keenness of Cicero's attack, but by the minute knowledge he displayed of the plot. His attempt at a reply was miserable, and was drowned in cries of execration. With curses on his lips, he rushed out of the senate, and escaped from Rome during the night. Catiline and Manlius were now denounced as traitors, and an army under the consul Antonius was sent against them. The conspirators who remained in Rome, of whom the chief were Lentulus and Cethegus, were at once arrested. After a great debate in the senate (December 5), in which Cæsar and Cato took a leading part on opposite sides, the conspirators were condemned to death. The sentence was executed that night in prison. The insurrections in several parts of Italy were meanwhile suppressed; many who had resorted to Catiline's camp in Etruria deserted when they heard what had taken place in Rome, and his intention to proceed into Gaul was frustrated. In the beginning of January he returned by Pistoria (now Pistoja) into Etruria, where he encountered the forces under Antonius, and after a desperate battle in which he fought with more than the courage of despair, he was defeated and slain. Catiline's appearance was in perfect keeping with his character. His face was reckless and defiant in expression, and haggard with a sense of crime; his eyes were wild and bloodshot; his gait restless and unsteady from nightly debauchery and the constant fever of insatiable and disappointed ambition. The Bellum

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Catilinarium of Sallust is a masterpiece. For the view that Catilina was a misrepresented democrat, see Beesly's Catiline, Clodius, and Tiberius (1878). Cat Island. See BAHAMAS.

Catkin (amentum). Although the vegetative growth of all inflorescences tends to be more or less shortened and compressed in consequence of their reproductive purpose, we have this peculiarly manifested in the catkin, which is a crowded spike or tuft of small unisexual flowers with reduced scalelike bracts. Examples are found in the willow, hazel, oak, birch, alder, &c. (q.v.). In some, as in the hazel and oak, the male flowers only are

b

2

1, Shoot of Birch in spring, bearing large terminal Male (b) and Female (a) Catkins. 2, Shoot of Birch in autumn with ripe Female Catkin. 3, Female Catkin of Willow.

in catkins, the female catkin of the flower being reduced to a few brown scales, while the female flowers of the oak are solitary, each on its own branchlet. Male catkins fall off after shedding their pollen, and even during life are frequently weak and pendulous, like the stamens of grasses, but these consequences of extremely reduced vege tative life become no doubt also of advantage at first in developing, and later in scattering, the pollen.

Catlin, GEORGE, one of the first authorities on the habits of the North American Indians, was born in Pennsylvania in 1796. He was bred to the law, but soon turned to drawing and painting, which he had taught himself. In 1832 he went to the Far West to study the native Indians, and spent the next eight years among them, everywhere painting portraits of individuals (not less than 470 full length) and pictures illustrative of life and manners, which are now in the National Museum at Washington. Catlin next travelled (1852-57) in South and Central America, and lived in Europe until 1871. At London in 1841 he published his learned and amply illustrated Manners, Customs, and Condition of the North American Indians, and in 1844 The North American Portfolio. He died at Jersey City, December 23, 1872. Other books are Notes of Eight Years in Europe (1848); The Breath of Life, or Mal-Respiration (1861), on the benefit of keeping one's mouth always closed.

Catmint, or CATNEP (Nepeta Cataria), a labiate herb, very common in North America, of which the peculiar fragrance is very attractive to cats, much in the same way as valerian.

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Cato, DIONYSIUS, is the name prefixed to a little volume of moral precepts in verse, which was a great favourite during the middle ages, but the author of which is unknown. Its usual title is Dionysii Catonis Disticha de Moribus ad Filium. It begins with a preface addressed by the supposed author to his son, after which come fifty-six injunctions of rather a simple character, such as parentem ama. Next follow 164 moral precepts, each expressed in two dactylic hexameters, the whole monotheistic in tone without being distinctly Christian. The book was early translated into most of the western languages. An English version by Benedict Burgh was printed by Caxton before 1479. A good edition is Hauthal's (Berlin, 1869).

Cato, MARCUS PORCIUS, frequently surnamed Censorius or Censor, also Sapiens (the wise'), and afterwards PRISCUS or MAJOR-to distinguish him from his great-grandson, Cato of Utica-was born at Tusculum in 234 B.C. He was brought up on his father's farm in the Sabine country, and here he learned to love the simple and severe manners of his Roman forefathers. He made his first campaign in his seventeenth year, distinguished himself at the capture of Tarentum (209), at the defeat of Hasdrubal on the Metaurus (207), and in the later years of the second Punic war. At the same time he had been making himself a reputation as an orator and statesman. He became quaestor in 204, and served under the pro-consul Scipio Africanus in Sicily and Africa, denouncing his commander's luxury and extravagance on his return to Rome. He was dile in 199, and prætor the following year, when he obtained Sardinia as his province. So high was his reputation for capacity and virtue, that in 195, although his family had hitherto been unknown, he was raised to the consulship. Spain fell to him as his province, and here he showed such vigour and military genius in crushing a formidable insurrection, that in the following year he was honoured by a triumph. In 191 he served in the campaign against Antiochus, and to him the great victory won at Thermopyla was mainly due. He

now turned himself strenuously to civil affairs, and strove with all his might to stem the tide of Greek refinement and luxury, and advocate a return to a simpler and stricter social life after the ancient Roman pattern. In 187 he opposed the granting of a triumph to M. Fulvius Nobilior after his return from Ætolia victorious, on the ground that he was too indulgent to his soldiers, that he cherished literary tastes, and even kept poets in his camp. These rude prejudices of Cato were not acceptable to the senate, and his opposition was fruitless. In 184 Cato was elected censor, and discharged so rigorously the duties of his office that the epithet Censorius, formerly applied to all persons in the same station, became his permanent surname. He repaired the watercourses, paved the reservoirs, cleansed the drains, raised the rents paid by the publicans for the farming of the taxes, and diminished the contract prices paid by the state to the undertakers of public works. More questionable reforms were those in regard to the price of slaves, dress, furniture, equipage, and the like. Good and bad innovations he opposed with equal animosity and intolerance, and his despotism in enforcing his own idea of decency may be illustrated from the fact that he degraded Manilius, a man of prætorian rank, for having kissed his wife in his daughter's presence in open day.

In th year 175 Cato was sent to Carthage to arbitrate between the Carthaginians and King Masinissa, and was so impressed by the dangerous power of Carthage that ever afterwards he ended every speech in the senate-house-whatever the immediate subject might be-with the well-known words: Ceterum censeo Carthaginem esse delendam'

(For the rest, I vote that Carthage must be destroyed'). Cato died in the year 149, at the age of 85. He had been twice married, and in his eightieth year his second wife bore him a son, the grandfather of Cato of Utica. Cato treated his slaves with old-fashioned harshness and cruelty, and in his old age became greedy of gain, although it cannot be said that his avarice impaired his honesty. He wrote several works, of which only the De Re Rustica (ed. by Keil, 1882–94), a kini of collection of the rules of good husbandry, has come down to us. There exist but a few frag ments of his Origines, a summary of the Roman annals. These are reprinted by Jordan (Leip 1860). Of his speeches, which were read with approval by Cicero, none remain. We possess his life as written by Cornelius Nepos, Plutarch, and Aurelius Victor.

Cato, MARCUS PORCIUS, named CATO THE YOUNGER, or CATO UTICENSIS (from the place of his death), was born 95 B.C. Having lost, during childhood, both parents, he was educated in the house of his uncle, M. Livius Drusus, and, even in his boyhood, gave proofs of his decision and strength of character. In the year 72 B.C. he served with distinction in the campaign against Spartacus, but without finding satisfaction in military life, though he proved himself a good soldier. From Macedonía, where he was military tribune in 67, he went to Pergamus in search of the Stoic philosopher, Athenodorus. He brought him back to his camp, and induced him to proceed with him to Rome, where he spent the time partly in philosophical studies, and partly in forensic discussions. Desir ous of honestly qualifying himself for the quæster. ship, he commenced to study all the financial questions connected with it. Immediately after his election he introduced, in spite of violen opposition from those interested, a rigorous reformu into the treasury offices. He quitted the questor ship at the appointed time amid general applause. In 63 B.C. he was elected tribune, and also delivered his famous speech on the conspiracy of Catiline, in which he denounced Cæsar as an accomplice of that political desperado, and deter mined the sentence of the senate. Strongly dread ing the influence of unbridled greatness, and not discerning that an imperial genius-like that of Cæsar-was the only thing that could remedy the evils of that overgrown monster, the Roman Republic, he commenced a career of what now appears to us blind pragmatical opposition to the three most powerful men in Rome-Crassus, Pompey, and Cæsar. Cato was a noble but strait-laced theorist, who lacked the intuition into circum stances which belongs to men like Cæsar and Cromwell. His first opposition to Pompey was successful; but his opposition to Cæsar's consulate for the year 59 not only failed, but even served to hasten the formation of the first triumvirate be tween Cæsar, Pompey, and Crassus. He was afterwards forced to side with Pompey, who had with drawn from his connection with Caesar, and become reconciled to the aristocracy. After the battle of Pharsalia (48), Cato intended to join Pompey, but hearing the news of his death, escaped into Africa where he was elected commander by the partisans of Pompey, but resigned the post in favour of Metellus Scipio, and undertook the defence o Utica. Here, when he had tidings of Cæsar decisive victory over Scipio at Thapsus (46), Cate finding that his troops were wholly intimidated advised the Roman senators and knights to escap from Utica, and make terms with the victor, bu prohibited all intercessions on his own behalf. H resolved to die rather than surrender, and, afte spending the night in reading Plato's Phado, com mitted suicide by stabbing himself in the breast

CAT-O'-NINE-TAILS

His example was more fruitful in results than the achievements of his life, for he became the typical example of the stoic that kindled to imitation the imaginations of the noblest Romans for two centuries under the empire.

Cat-o'-nine-tails. See FLOGGING.

Catoptrics is that division of geometrical optics which treats of the phenomena of light incident upon the surfaces of bodies, and reflected therefrom. See OPTICS.

Cato Street Conspiracy, a plot formed in London in 1820 by a handful of crazy ruffians for the murder of Lord Castlereagh and the other ministers of the crown, so called from the place of meeting in Cato Street, Edgeware Road. As usual the plot was revealed beforehand to the police by one of the gang, and accordingly the conspirators were seized, after a short scuffle, in a stable in Cato Street. Arthur Thistlewood, the ringleader, and four of his dupes, were hanged, while five more were transported for life.

Catrail (also known as the Picts' Work or Picts' Work Ditch) is the name applied to the remains of & large earthwork, about 50 miles in length, which, beginning at Torwoodlee Hill, near the junction of the Gala Water with the Tweed, runs with a semicircular sweep southward through the counties of Selkirk and Roxburgh to a point under Peel Fell, in the Cheviots. The earthwork consisted of a deep ditch, with a rampart on each side, and varied in breadth from 20 to 26 feet. The cultivation of land and other causes have resulted in the destruction of the ramparts in many places. The Catrail was first described by Gordon in his Itinerarium Septentrionale (1726), and since then has been the subject of much speculation among antiquaries. For a full description of the Catrail, see paper in Transactions of the Berwickshire Naturalists' Club for 1880, by James Smail, F.S.A. An account of the various theories which have been promulgated regarding the Catrail will be found in Blackwood's Magazine for 1888.

Cats, JACOB, a Dutch statesman and poet, was born at Brouwershaven, in Zeeland, in 1577, and after studying law at Leyden and Orleans, finally settled at Middelburg. He rose to high offices in the state, and was twice sent as ambassador to England, first in 1627, and again in 1652, while Cromwell was at the head of affairs. From this time till his death, September 1660, he lived in retirement at his villa near the Hague. Here he wrote his autobiography, which, however, was not published until 1709. As a poet, Father Cats' enjoyed the highest popularity. His poems are characterised by simplicity, rich fancy, clearness, homely vigour, and purity of style, and by their excellent moral tendency; while throughout are richly scattered those shrewd maxims and worldlywise axioms which have been so dear to his practical countrymen. The most highly prized of his productions were the Houwelyk, and the Trouwring a series of romantic stories relating to remarkable marriages), and the Spiegel van den Ouden en Nieuwen Tyd. His works were first collected in a folio volume in 1658. A late edition is that by Wolterink (Dordrecht, 1878-82). Cat's-eye, a beautiful variety of chalcedonic quartz receiving its name from the resemblance which the reflection of light from it, especially when cut en cabochon, or in a convex form, is supposed to exhibit to the light that seems to emanate from the interior of the eye of a cat. It has a sort of pearly appearance, and is chatoyant, or characterised by a fine play of light, which is supposed to result from the parallel arrangement of fine fibres of some foreign substance, such as ami

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anthus, or of minute hollow tubules similarly arranged. It is of various colours, and is obtained chiefly from India and Ceylon, but occurs also in the Harz. A chatoyant variety of felspar has been sometimes confounded with cat's-eye.

Catskill, a village of New York, on the Hudson, 34 miles by rail below Albany. P. (1890) 4920. Catskill Mountains, a group of mountains in the state of New York, U.S., west of the Hudson River, and south of the Mohawk. They tinuous northward with the Helderbergs, southbelong to the Appalachian system, and are con ward with the Shawangunks, south-westward with the Delaware Mountains, and westward with a high plateau which occupies much of the region of the southern half of Western New York, and a part of the northern counties of Pennsylvania. The Catskills proper cover about 5000 sq. m., chiefly in Greene County, N. Y. Some peaks reach nearly 4000 feet in height. The mountains generally have steep and often precipitous ascents, and their summits are broad and rocky. The deep valleys or cloves' of this region, with almost perpendicular walls, form a remarkable scenic feature. What is known as 'the Catskill red sandstone' is regarded by most geologists as the very latest formed of the Devonian strata of North America. The mountains are well wooded, and afford many summerresorts for the people of the larger cities. See Searing's Land of Rip Van Winkle (1885).

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Cat's-tail. See BULRUSH.

Cat's-tail Grass. See TIMOTHY GRASS. Cat'taro, a strongly fortified port in the Austrian crown-land of Dalmatia, lies at the head of the Gulf of Cattaro, 40 miles SE. of Ragusa, under the steep Montenegrin hills. Cattaro has a cathedral, a naval school, and a population of 5453, chiefly engaged in the Montenegrin trade. At one time the capital of a small republic, the town in 1420 joined the republic of Venice, and after varied fortunes was handed over to Austria in 1814 by the treaty of Vienna.-The Gulf of Cattaro, an inlet of the Adriatic, consists of three basins or lakes, connected by straits of about half a mile in breadth. Its length is 19 miles, and its depth from 15 to 20 fathoms.

Cattegat, or KATTEGAT, the bay or arm of the sea between the east coast of Jutland and the west coast of Sweden, to the north of the Danish islands. It is connected with the Baltic Sea by the Great and Little Belt (q.v.), and by the Sound; and the Skager Rack (q.v.) connects it with the North Sea. The length of the Cattegat is about 150 miles, and its greatest breadth 85 miles. Its greatest depth is 36 fathoms, but it has numerous sand-banks; and navigation is rendered more dangerous by its strong currents and violent storms. The Danish shores are low, with stretches of sand or reefs, but the Swedish shore is very steep and rocky.

Cattermole, GEORGE, water-colour painter and book-illustrator, was born at Dickleborough, Norfolk, 8th August 1800. He began life as a topographical draftsman. At the age of sixteen he was engaged upon Britton's English Cathedrals, and in 1830 he visited Scotland to obtain materials for his fine series of illustrations to the Waverley Novels. He was soon known as a brilliant designer, and was largely employed by the publishers, contributing to the annuals, his best work of this class being the illustrations to his brother, the Rev. C. Cattermole's Historical Annual, dealing with the period of the Civil War. In 1822 he was elected an associate exhibitor, and in 1833 a member, of the Water-colour Society, to whose exhibitions he contributed Sir Walter Raleigh witnessing the Execu tion of the Earl of Essex' (1839), Old English

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Hospitality' (1839), The Castle Chapel' (1840), "The Assassination of the Regent Murray' (1843), 'Cellini defending the Castle of St Angelo' (1845), and others of his best water-colours, examples of which may be studied in the South Kensington Museum. He retired from the society in 1850, and turned his attention to oil-painting, exhibiting A Terrible Secret,' a work in this medium, in the Royal Academy of 1863. He died at Clapham Common, 24th July 1868. As an artist he was distinguished by great versatility, and by considerable power of grouping and composition. He was learned in costume, and his works show much dramatic feeling. He gained a first-class gold medal at the Paris Exposition of 1855, and was a member of the Royal Academy at Amsterdam, and of the Belgian Society of Water-colour Painters.

Catti, or CHATTI, a German people, erroneously included by Cæsar under the name Suevi (q.v.), who inhabited a country pretty nearly corresponding to the present Hesse. They took part in the general rising of the Germans under Arminius; and during the reign of Marcus Aurelius, in the end of the 2d century, they made incursions into Roman Germany and Rhætia. In the 3d century their name began to give place to that of the Franks (q.v.). Cattle. In the United Kingdom there are twelve native breeds of cattle. England claims exactly one-half of these-namely, the Shorthorn, Hereford, Devon, Norfolk and Suffolk Red Polled, Sussex, and Longhorn breeds. There are two or three varieties of cattle in Wales, but for practical purposes they may be reckoned as one breed. Four distinct breeds have arisen in Scotland, these being the Polled Aberdeen-Angus, Galloway, Ayrshire, and West Highland breeds. The remaining one is the native breed of Ireland, the hardy little Kerry, regarded as one of the purest and truest existing representatives of the ancient Bos longifrons. In addition to these twelve native races, other two very useful breeds, the Jersey and Guernsey, have become domiciled in the British Isles, and there are also a few of the famous Dutch milking cows scattered over the country. These various races, with an almost endless variety of crosses between two or more of them, make up the entire cattle stock of the United Kingdom, which, according to the official agricultural returns, numbered 10,753,314 head in 1895.

The Shorthorn is by far the most numerous and most widely diffused. It has not inaptly been titled the Cosmopolitan Shorthorn.' It has found a home in almost every county in the United Kingdom. The county of Durham is generally regarded as the cradle of shorthorns; indeed, they have often been spoken of both at home and abroad as the Durham breed.' But the valuable race of native cattle from which the improved shorthorn

Fig. 1.-Shorthorn Bull and Cow. was raised abounded freely in adjoining counties as far back as reliable history enables us to trace their career. Early in the 19th century they were also known as 'Teeswater' cattle, the first famous shorthorns having come from the valley of the Tees.

CATTLE

The brothers Charles and Robert Colling were the
first to begin the systematic improvement of the
breed. In those days the rank and file' of short-
horn cattle were large, high-standing cattle, good
milkers, but rough in form and slow in fattening,
The Collings would seem to have at once directed
themselves to the improvement of the native cattle
where they were most defective, and they were
successful in establishing a stock of cattle of a
decidedly more profitable character-wider in the
rib, more symmetrical in the frame, shorter in the
leg, slightly smaller in size, heavier in flesh, and
more speedy in maturing and fattening. It has
been said, but not established beyond contention,
that in effecting this improvement the Collings
made use of an infusion of blood from some of the
other smaller breeds. It is more likely that
they relied upon selection' in breeding-the
mating of animals of the shorthorn breed which
most nearly approached to their ideal character,
and fixing the type by pursuing what is desig
nated as 'in-and-in' breeding-i.e. mating animals
which are closely related to each other, a system
that is known to assist greatly in stamping or
fixing peculiar features and characteristics upon
races of stock. The success of the Collings was
speedy and complete, for the fame of their cattle
spread so rapidly that even earlier than 1810, the
year of the first great public sale of shorthorns,'
they had sold cows and bulls at £100 each, and
had hired bulls for use to other breeders at pre-
At Charles
miums of from £50 to £100 a year.
Colling's historical sale at Ketton in 1810, 29 cows
and heifers realised an average of £140, 4s. 7d. ;
at Robert Colling's sale at Barmpton, in a time
and 18 bulls £169, 8s. each. Eight years later,
of great depression, an average of £128, 9s. 10d.
was obtained for 61 animals. The sensational
event of the memorable sale at Ketton was the
purchase of the celebrated bull Comet' at the
fabulous price of 1000 guineas.

At the Ketton sale

The importance and interest attaching to the operations of these two great pioneer breeders will at once be understood when it is mentioned that there is not at the present day a well-bred living shorthorn in whose pedigree Colling blood does not figure prominently. Colling's successors were, on the Booth family, whose representatives then were one hand, Thomas Bates; on the other, the Thomas and John Booth. (1810) Thomas Bates purchased the two-yearold heifer Young Duchess' for 183 guineas. Thomas Booth bought the bull-calf Albion for 60 guineas; and at the Barmpton sale (1818) his brother, John Booth, secured the yearling bull 'Pilot' for 270 guineas. With these purchases the shorthorn breed drifted into two great channels, which by degrees absorbed the main current of the race, so that for many years the terms 'Booth' and 'Bates' shorthorns have been as applicable in relation to the bovine world as Whig and Tory to the political. These two strains of Bates and Booth, as has been seen, had one common origin in Colling's blood, but in course of time they developed distinctive shapes and characteristics which in the purer representatives are still well maintained. Mr Robert Bruce, than whom there is no higher authority, thus describes the characteristics of 'Booth' and 'Bates,' speaking in the first place of 'Bates' cattle: They are higher standing, better milking, and perhaps gayer looking cattle than the Booths. They have as a rule more upright shoulders, flatter foreribs, opener sides, with long hindquarters less fully packed with flesh than the rival strain. As a rule their heads are clean cut and pretty wide, while the bulls have long arched muscular necks and keen tempers. The prevailing colours in this strain of blood are, generally

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