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CAUCHY

wild and semi-barbarous Suanetians. Christianity is the faith of some races, as the Georgians and Ossetes; Mohammedanism of a fanatical type that of others, as the Lesghians; while primitive pagan superstitions seem largely to underlie both religious professions. One Kartvelian tribe, the Khevsurs, has in some measure combined Christianity with Moslem usages.

The resistance which the Caucasian peoples for more than half a century offered to the arms of Russia attracted to them the attention of the world. But with the capture in 1859 of Shamyl, the prophet chief of the Lesghians, who for more than twenty years withstood the armies sent against him, the power of the Caucasians was shattered; by 1870 it was completely broken. The bulk of the Circassians migrated to Turkish territories in Asia or Europe; most of the Abkhasians have done the like. The ancient divisions of the country, Georgia, Imeritia, Svanetia, Mingrelia, &c., were based on tribal distinctions. These have disappeared from the Russian administrative system. According to the latter, the main range of Caucasus divides the province into Ciscaucasia, north of the mountains, and Transcaucasia to the south of them; the former comprising the governments of Stavropol, Kuban, Terek; the latter, those of Daghestan (really north of Caucasus), Sakatal, Tiflis, Kutais, Sukhum, Black Sea, Elisabetpol, Baku, and Erivan. Add Batoum and Kars (Russian Armenia), and the Transcaspian territory, and then Caucasia in the widest sense has an area of 308,000 sq. m., and a pop. of 6,290,000. The chief town in Ciscaucasia is Vladikavkaz; in Transcaucasia, Tiflis; the two connected by the great military road through the Caucasus. The old capital of Georgia was Mtzkhet, a good specimen of a Georgian word. For Caucasus and Caucasia, see the map of Russia in Vol. VIII., and the articles CIRCASSIANS, GEORGIA, TRANSCAUCASIA, and, for the wars with Russia, SHAMYL; also Freshfield, The Exploration of the Caucasus (1897); Cuninghame, Eastern Caucasus (1872); Bryce, Transcaucasia (1878); Phillipps-Wolley, Savage Svanetia (1883); Mourier, Contes et Légendes du Caucase (1888); Abercromby, A Trip through the Eastern Caucasus (1890).

Cauchy, AUGUSTIN LOUIS, mathematician, born in Paris, 21st August 1789, published in 1815 a Mémoire sur la Théorie des Ondes, which contributed greatly to establish the undulatory theory of light. Between 1820 and 1830 he wrote several important treatises; and at Prague, where he resided as tutor to the Comte de Chambord, he published his Mémoire sur la Dispersion de la Lumière (1837). From 1848 to 1852 he was professor of Astronomy at Paris, but refused the oath of allegiance to Napoleon III., and lived in retirement till his death, 23d May 1857. A reissue of his works, in 26 vols., was commenced by the Academy in 1882. See his Life by Valson (2 vols. Paris, 1868). Caucus, a private meeting of politicians to agree upon candidates to be proposed for an ensuing election, or to fix the business to be laid before a general meeting of their party. The term origin ated in America, where the caucus has taken fast root, the ticket,' or list of candidates for federal, state, and municipal offices, being always decided upon by the party leaders; but of late years the system has been introduced into England, and adopted by the Radicals, especially in Birmingham, though the word is there used rather for the regu larly constituted party organisation. In Notes and Queries for 1885 there is a long discussion as to the origin of the word, which Sydney Smith used in Isis, and John Adams in 1763. Professor Skeat is inclined to refer it to an Indian source, Captain

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John Smith (1609) having Cawcawwassoughes for the Indian councillors of Virginia, and Caucorouse for an Indian captain.

of the Devonian system of North America. The Cauda-galli Grit, the basement subdivision forms of a common fossil, supposed to be a seaweed. name (lit. 'cock's tail') is derived from the feathery Caudebec, two places in the French departCaudebec les Elbeuf, 12 ment of Seine-Inférieure. miles S. by W. of Rouen, has a pop. (1886) of Caux, a pretty antique village of 2200 inhabitants, 11,038, and manufactures cloth. Caudebec-en

is on the Seine, 31 miles WNW. of Rouen.

Caudine Forks (Furculæ Caudine), two high, narrow, and wooded mountain-gorges near the town of Caudium, in ancient Samnium, on the borders of Campania; noted for the defeat of the Romans in the second Samnite war (321 B.C.). See ROME.

Caul, a portion of the amnion or thin membrane enveloping the foetus, sometimes encompassing the head of a child when born, mentioned here on account of the extraordinary superstitions connected with it from very early ages almost down to the present day. It was the popular belief that chil dren so born would turn out very fortunate, and that the caul brought fortune even to those who purchased it. This superstition was so common in the primitive church, that St Chrysostom inveighed against it in several of his homilies. In

later times midwives sold the caul to advocates at high prices, as an especial means of making them eloquent, and to seamen, as an infallible preservative against drowning (cf. Dickens's David Copperfield). It was also supposed that the health of the person born with it could be told by the caul, which, if firm and crisp, betokened health, but if relaxed and flaccid, sickness or death (Notes and Queries, 1884-86). During the 17th century cauls were often advertised in the newspapers for sale from £10 to £30 being the prices asked; and so recently as 8th May 1848, there was an advertisement in the Times of a caul to be sold, which was afloat with its late owner thirty years in all the perils of a seaman's life, and the owner died at last at the place of his birth.' The price asked was six guineas.

Caulaincourt, ARMAND DE, Duke of Vicenza, a statesman of the French empire, born at Caulain court (Aisne), in 1772, early distinguished himself as an officer, was made a general of division in 1805, and shortly after created Duke of Vicenza. Faithful to the last to Napoleon, he was made Minister for Foreign Affairs in 1813, and during the Hundred Days resumed the office, receiving a peerage of France, of which he was deprived after the restoration. He died in Paris, February 19, 1827. See his Souvenirs (1837-40).

cabbage. It was cultivated by the Greeks and Cauliflower, a variety of the common kale or Romans, but was little attended to in England till the end of the 17th century; yet prior to the French Revolution cauliflower formed an article of export from England to Holland, whilst English cauliflower seed is still preferred on the Continent. The deformed inflorescence or heads of the cauliflower only are used. Its cultivation for the supply of Covent Garden and other markets occupies the attention of the market-gardeners of London, Cornwall, Devonshire, and the Channel Islands to a very large extent during winter and spring. It is much more tender than Broccoli (q.v.), and the plants that are reared in August for the purpose of supplying the first crop of the following summer require to be protected under hand-glasses or frames during winter. They require to be freely exposed

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to air in mild or comparatively mild weather, but severe frost must be prevented from entering the glasses or frames. From the middle of August to the 24th of that month, make two or three sowings at intervals of three or four days. The plants reared from these sowings are planted out, a certain portion of the strongest under hand-glasses to furnish the earliest crop; and an abundant reserve of the smaller plants are planted a few inches apart in frames, to be planted out finally in the spring in the open ground. To succeed these a sowing may be made in a hotbed in January or February; and again in March and May, plants should be reared for successional crops, these later sowings being made in the open ground. The ground must be rich and the cultivation high to produce cauliflower of first-rate quality; there is some risk, however, in having the ground too rich for the winter crop in the case of severe weather occurring; if the plants are extra luxuriant, they will the more readily succumb to frost.

Caulking, in wood shipbuilding, is the operation of driving oakum or untwisted rope into the seams of the outside planks, or of the deck plank ing, to render them watertight. The quantity thus driven in depends on the thickness of the planking; it varies from 1 to 13 double threads of oakum, with 1 or 2 single threads of spun yarn. The caulker first raims or reems the seam-that is, drives a caulking-iron into it, to widen the seam as much as possible, and close any rents or fissures in the wood; he then drives in a little spun yarn or white oakum with a wood mallet and a caulking chisel, and afterwards a much larger quantity of black or coarse oakum. The fibres are driven in until they form a densely hard mass, which not only keeps out water, but strengthens the planking. The seam is finally coated or payed with hot pitch or resin.

In iron or steel shipbuilding and boilermaking the term covers the operation of driving the edge of one thickness of plating firmly against the other thickness upon which it is superimposed, or to which it is adjacent, thus rendering the joints watertight. The tool employed is a specially formed chisel, struck by a metal hand-hammer; but endeavours have been made to supplant this by steam-driven machines, so far with but indifferent success.

Caulop'teris, a generic name for the stems of certain extinct tree-ferns, which range from the Devonian to the Permian system. They are hollow, and covered with markings similar to

the leaf-scars on recent tree-ferns.

Caura, a considerable river of Venezuela, rises among the sierras of the southern frontier, and flows NNW. to the Orinoco. On both sides stretches the territory of Caura (22,485 sq. m.), with immense forests of tonka beans.

Caus, CAULX, or CAULS, SALOMON DE, engineer, born at Dieppe in 1576, was a Protestant, and lived much in England and Germany. He was in the service of the Prince of Wales in 1612, and of the Elector Palatine, at Heidelberg, in 1614-20; but by 1623 he returned to France, and became engineer and architect to the king. He died in Paris, 6th June 1626. At Frankfort in 1615 appeared his Raisons des Forces Mouvantes, &c., a work in which is described an apparatus for forcing up water by a steam fountain, differing only in one detail from that of Della Porta (see STEAMENGINE). There is no reason to suppose that the apparatus ever was constructed; but on the strength of the description, Arago has claimed for De Caus the invention of the steam-engine. See the article DE CAUS in vol. xiv. of the Dict. of National Biography (1888).

CAUSALITY

Causality, or the theory of the relation between cause and effect, is one of the most intricate and important questions of philosophical doctrine. All scientific investigation is occupied with the search for the causes of given events, or for the effects of given causes, and with the generalisation of these into laws of nature. But the nature and ground of the relation between cause and effect are obscure and disputed.

The difficulty of the question is largely increased by the uncertain signification of the word cause. Thus the investigation into the cause of things, with which early Greek speculation was occupied, was really an inquiry for the ultimate constituent or element from which the variety of actual existence had proceeded; and from this inquiry the quest for a principle of change or development was only gradually distinguished. The first important step in the direction of clear discussion was made in Aristotle's doctrine of the four causes the material cause, out of which a thing is framed; the formal cause, or the essence or idea of the thing; the efficient or active cause, by final cause or purpose it subserves. These, it is means of which it took its present form; and the to be observed, are not so much causes in the modern sense of the term, as principles which enter into the existence of everything. In modern science the meaning of the term is much more restricted, corresponding in some degree to what Aristotle called the efficient cause. Thus both Bacon and Descartes wished to banish the notion

of final cause from the scientific interpretation of nature; and although, in Bacon's own method, science was treated as an inquiry into the form or true nature of things (corresponding thus to Aristotle's formal cause), this notion has had little influence. What Descartes sought, and what science still seeks, is the connection rather than the essence of things; and its ideal is a mechanical interpretation of nature in terms of matter and motion. In modern science cause may therefore be said to mean the explanation of change. To some extent it corresponds with Aristotle's efficient cause. But the notion of efficient cause has itself undergone a profound modification, which seems to have been carried out alongside of the formulating of the principle of the conservation of energy. The tendency in science has been to replace the notion of power or efficiency by that of order or constant sequence. The genesis and justification of the notion of efficiency are matters of dispute: whether it is an a priori intuition, or derived from the consciousness of the voluntary direction of attention, or from the sensations of innervation and muscular resistance. Both Berkeley and Hume directed a vigorous polemic against the doctrine of power expressed by Locke, as going beyond the observed facts of the motion of bodies, and Hume refused to see in mind any more than in matter anything else than a succession of impressions and ideas. Into the rights of this controversy it is impossible to enter here. But clearness of scientific statement has certainly been gained by the extrusion of the notion of power, and substitution for it of that of regular sequence. It is in following out this view of the physical as distinct from the efficient cause that the term comes to be defined as the aggregate of the conditions or antecedents necessary to the production of the effect: meaning by necessary conditions those conditions without which the effect either would not have existed at all, or would have been different from what it is. In popular language, however, and even in most scientific inquiries, the term cause is restricted to the one or two conditions by the intervention of which amongst other more permanent conditions

CAUSALITY

the effect is produced. Thus it is noticeable that while the former or more complete definition corresponds with that expressly given in J. S. Mill's Logic, his inductive methods are entirely devoted to explaining modes of discovering causes in the narrower or popular signification.

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It is in this meaning of the term that science investigates causes. In doing so, it goes on the presupposition that every event or change has a cause. This has been called the Law of Universal Causation, and may be expressed by saying that the explanation of every event is to be found in antecedent conditions. Scientific investigation also presupposes the Law of the Uniformity of Nature, that the same conditions or cause will be followed (at all times and places) by the same effects. The grounds and mutual relation of these two assumptions form the chief subject of controversy in the philosophical theory of causality. It is to Hume that the credit is due of having drawn attention to the difficulties involved in the principle of causation, in such a way as to determine the whole course of subsequent philosophy. All reasoning about matters of fact, he shows all physical science, therefore-depends on the relation between cause and effect. Yet, between the cause and the effect there is no discoverable connection. There appears not, through all nature, any one instance of connection which is conceivable by us. All events seem entirely loose and separate. One event follows another; but we never can observe any tie between them. They seem conjoined, but never connected.' Hume's own solution of the difficulty is found in the law of mental association. The mind,' he says, 'is carried by habit upon the appearance of one event to expect its usual attendant, and to believe that it will exist. This connection, therefore, which we feel in the mind, or customary transition of the imagination from one object to its usual attendant, is the sentiment or impression from which we form the idea of power or necessary connection. Nothing further is in the case. .. When we say, therefore, that one object is connected with another, we mean only that they have acquired a connection in our thoughts, and give rise to this inference by which they became proofs of one another's existence: a conclusion which is somewhat extraordinary, but which seems founded on sufficient evidence. The conclusion to which Hume is driven is thus that, while all reasoning about matters of fact is founded on the principle of causality, this principle has itself no other basis than the mental tendency to pass from one impression to the idea of another impression previously experienced in conjunction with the former. Hume's solution is thus not sceptical (except as regards the application of causality or any other principle beyond experience), but it is subjective: the connection of things is resolved into a customary succession of ideas. Of the numerous theories of causation put forward since the question was thus opened, the two most important are J. S. Mill's rehabilitation of Hume's doctrine to suit the requirements of scientific investigation, and the opposed doctrine of Kant and his philosophical

successors.

It is characteristic of Mill's doctrine that the principle of causality is made a consequence of the Law of the Uniformity of Nature: the familiar truth that invariability of succession is found by observation to obtain between every fact in nature and some other fact which has preceded it.' This principle, which is assumed in every scientific induction, is itself held to be the generalisation of a wide and uncontradicted experience.

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phers and others, as well as Kant, had attempted replies to Hume, contending that causality is an intuitive judgment antecedent to experience. But such a reply remains an arbitrary assertion until it is shown how the causal judgment is connected with experience. In Kant's Critique of Pure Reason this connection is thoroughly investigated; the refutation of Hume is only part or consequence of a complete inquiry into the relation of reason to experience. It was, however, largely Hume's doctrine of causality that led to Kant's new point of view, and to the doctrine that experience is the product of the understanding, the realisation of its a priori forms. It is not the sequence of events in time, Kant holds, that gives rise to the principle of causality; but the pure notion of causality finds its realisation in this time-sequence, in which each event is determined by its antecedent. Kant's doctrine, as thus stated, is in full harmony with the principles and methods of modern science; asserting the principle that every change-i.e. each successive state-of the universe is the result of its preceding state, and at the same time leaving to empirical investigation the connection in experience of any one definite thing with any other.

The most important discussions of causality are those of Hume, Treatise of Human Nature, book i. part iii., and Essay Of the Idea of Necessary Connection; Kant, Critique of Pure Reason; and J. S. Mill, System of Logic, book iii. chaps. iii.-v. There is also elaborate treatment of the subject in the works of Reid, Stewart, and Hamilton. Dr Thomas Brown's Inquiry into the Relation of Cause and Effect contains much acute analytical thinking.

Cause Célèbre, a convenient French term for a specially interesting and important legal trial, criminal or civil, such as the Douglas Cause (1769-71), the Dred Scott case in the United States as to the possession of a negro (1856), the Tichborne case (1871-74). There is a great French collection of Causes Célèbres et interessantes (22 vols. 1737-45), by Gayot de Pitaval, with modern continuations. See TRIAL.

and informal essay on any subject in a newspaper Causerie, a name applied to a somewhat short or magazine. More familiar in manner and slighter in structure than the formal essay as usually understood, it is an excellent medium for a writer whose value of his thoughts. The name owes its literary personality interests the reader as much as the currency mainly to the famous Causeries du Lundi were many of Matthew Arnold's occasional essays. of Sainte-Beuve; hardly less valuable examples ing-Gould's Deserts of Southern France (1894). Causses, LES. See FRANCE (p. 770), and Bar

Caustic (Gr., burning'), a term for substances that exert a corroding action on the skin and flesh. Lunar caustic (so called because silver was called luna, the moon,' in the alchemists' mystical jargon) is nitrate of silver, and common caustic is potash. When used as a caustic in medicine, the substance is fused and cast into moulds, which yield the caustic in small sticks the thickness of an ordinary lead pencil, or rather less.— Caustic is also used in chemistry in an adjective sense-thus caustic lime, or pure lime, CaO, as distinguished from mild lime, or the carbonate of lime, CaCO3, caustic magnesia, MgO, and mild magnesia, MgCO,, caustic potash, caustic soda (for these, see POTASH, SODA, &c.). See CAUTERY.

Caustics. When the incident rays are parallel to the principal axis of a reflecting concave mirror, they converge, after reflection, to a single point, called the principal focus. In the case of parabolic A different position is given to the causal prin- mirrors this is rigorously true. For, as is easily ciple in Kant's philosophy. The Scottish philoso-seen from the fundamental property of the para

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bola, any ray falling on the mirror parallel to the axis is reflected so as to pass exactly through the focus. For other mirrors it is approximately true only when the breadth of the mirror is very small | in comparison with its radius of curvature. When the breadth of the mirror is large in comparison with its radius of curvature there is no definite image, even of a luminous point. In such cases the image is spread over what is called a Caustic, or sometimes a Catacaustic.

An example of the caustic is given in the annexed figure for the simplest case-namely, that of rays falling directly on a concave spherical mirror, BAB', from a point so distant as to be practically parallel.

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Two very near rays, P and Q, will after reflection intersect at C. By finding in this way all the points of intersection of the reflected rays, we get a continuous curve, BCFB', which is the section of the caustic surface by a plane passing through its axis. The curve BCFB' varies of course with the form of the reflecting surface. In the case under consideration it is known as an epicycloid.

B'

The reader may see a catacaustic on the surface of tea in a tea-cup half full by holding the circular rim to the sun's light. The space within the caustic curve is all brighter than that without, as it clearly should be, as all the light reflected affects that space, while no point without the curve is affected by more than the light reflected from half of the surface. The rainbow, it may be mentioned, forms one of the most interesting of the whole family of caustics.

When a caustic is produced by refraction, it is sometimes called a Diacaustic. No such simple example can be given of the diacaustic curve as that above given of the catacaustic. It is only in the simplest cases that the curve takes a recognisable form. In the case of refraction at a plane surface, it can be shown that the diacaustic curve is the evolute either of the hyperbola or ellipse, according as the refractive index of the medium is greater or less than unity.

Cauterets, a fashionable French watering. place in the department of Hautes-Pyrénées, lies 3250 feet above sea-level, in the valley of the Laverdan, 5 miles S. of Pierrefitte, the nearest railway station, and 42 SSE. of Pau. The stationary population of the place is only 1260, but it is annually swelled in summer by 15,000 to 20,000 visitors, for whose accommodation numerous sumptuous hotels and bathing-establishments have been built. It is a good centre and guidestation for ascents among the Pyrenees. The sulphurous springs, twenty-five in number, and varying in temperature from 60° to 131° F., are the most abundant in the Pyrenees (330,000 gallons per day), and have been known from Roman times; though their modern reputation dates from the 16th century, when Margaret, sister of Francis I., held her literary court and wrote much of her Heptameron at Cauterets.

Cautery (Gr. kaio, 'I burn'), in Medicine, is used of any substance which burns the tissues. (The term potential cautery,' as applied to caustic substances, is becoming obsolete.) The actual cautery is an instrument with a head or blade of steel, iron, or platinum, which is heated in a fire or spirit-lamp. In the thermo-cautery (or Paquelin's cautery, from its inventor), the head or blade is

CAUTION

made of hollow platinum, so arranged that a flame of benzole can be kept burning in its interior. The galvano-cautery consists essentially of a platinum wire which can be heated to any required degree by passing a strong galvanic current through it. The cautery is used for three main purposes in surgery: to produce counter-irritation over an inflamed part (see BLISTERS) (actual cautery); to check bleeding (actual or thermo-cautery), by slowly destroying the tissues at the bleeding point or surface; to perform operations, where the tissues to be divided are either very vascular (thermocautery), or very difficult of access (galvanocautery). See CAUSTIC.

Caution, in the Law of Scotland, like Guaranty (q.v.) in England, is an obligation undertaken by a second party, whereby he binds himself, failing the primary obligant, to fulfil his obligation, whether it be of a pecuniary nature or otherwise. Cautionary obligations are thus essentially of an accessory nature, and cannot subsist apart from the principal obligation. The law of this subject is now largely founded on the Mercantile Law Amendment Acts, 1856, which assimilate the laws of England and Scotland, and according to which the creditor may proceed at once against the cautioner, just as if he were a joint obligant, without suing the primary debtor, unless the cautioner has expressly stipulated that this shall be done. The creditor, however, is in every case bound to use proper precaution in retaining and making available securities. He is not, however, bound to make the same full disclosure of material facts as in insurance, and therefore a cautioner should make careful inquiry for himself. Cautionary obligations are generally gratuitous, being, for the most part, undertaken from motives of friendship; but it is by no means uncommon for them to be entered into in consideration of a premium paid by the person guaranteed, or by those interested in his fortunes. Where a premium is paid, the transaction becomes a mere insurance of solvency, honesty, or efficiency; and associations of great public utility (see GUARAN TEE) have been formed, both in England and Scotland, for the purpose of undertaking to guarantee the fidelity of persons employed either in public or private offices of trust. The tendency of judicial decisions, both in England and Scotland, for many years past, has been to require greater strictness than formerly in the constitution of cautionary obligations; and under the statutes already mentioned all such engagements must be in writing, subscribed by the person undertaking or making them, or by some person duly authorised by him, otherwise they shall have no effect. If a cautionary obligation is dependent on a condition, it will, of course, be ineffectual unless the condiThe cautioner may, in tion be complied with. general, plead every defence which was competent to the principal debtor, and the extinction of the primary obligation extinguishes the secondary one. The cautioner is discharged by any essential charge being made on the obligation of the debtor, or in respect of the person relied on, without his assent. The statute expressly provides that changes of partnership either of creditor or debtor will extinguish the guarantee. If the creditor gives time -e.g. takes bills from the debtor of an unusual currency-that will also operate discharge. discharge of one cautioner, moreover, unless consented to by the rest, is a discharge to all. The cautioner is entitled, on full payment, though not on payment by a dividend, to an assignation of the debt and diligence, by which means he comes, in all respects, into the creditor's place; and moreover, if the solvency or other conditions of the principal debtor should seem precarious, he may

The

CAUVERY

adopt legal measures for his relief. Co-cautioners, or persons bound together, whether their obligations be embodied in one or several deeds, are entitled to mutual relief. But where a co-cautioner obtains relief from the others, he must communicate to them the benefit of any deduction or ease which may have been allowed him in paying the debt. Letters of credit and recommendation raise much the same relation of parties as a formal cautionary obligation, but since 1856 a mere verbal introduction cannot have that effect. For the forms and effects of ordinary mercantile guarantees, and for the forms of guarantee insurance of fidelity, see GUARANTEE. For the Scottish cautionary obliga tion in cash-credit bond, see BANKING, Vol. I. 713. JUDICIAL CAUTION, in the Law of Scotland, is of two kinds-for appearance, and for payment. If a creditor makes oath before a magistrate, that he believes his debtor to be meditating flight (in meditatione fuga), he may obtain a warrant for his apprehension; and should he succeed in proving the alleged intention to flee, he may compel him to find caution to abide the judgment of a court (judicio sisti). The cautioner, or surety, undertakes that the defender shall appear to answer any action that may be brought within six months. The old Bond of Presentation, by which in order to gain time the surety undertook to produce the debtor or pay the debt at a future date, is now superseded by the abolition of imprisonment for debt. There is also a form of judicial caution called judicatum solvi, given in cases of general loosing of arrestment of ships, in which the surety becomes liable for the whole debt. The commonest form of judicial caution, however, is the security usually given in the Bill-chamber (q.v.), when a bill or bond is brought under suspension; the security is for the principal sum and expenses, if the suspension should be refused. Interdict is also frequently granted upon caution for the damages that may result from the interdict, should it turn out to have been wrongly obtained.

Cauvery. See KAVERI.

Cava del Tirreni, a town of Italy, in a lovely valley, 5 miles NW. of Salerno by rail, with a cathedral, and manufactures of silk, woollens, cotton, and linen. Pop. 6339. About a mile distant is the Benedictine monastery of the Trinity, celebrated for its archives.

Cavagnari, SIR LOUIS, born in France in 1841, was educated at Christ's Hospital, London, and in 1857 was naturalised as a British subject. He had seen twenty-one years' military and political service in India, when on 3d September 1879 he was murdered at Kabul. See AFGHANISTAN.

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to his generalship. His task being done, he resigned his power into the hands of the National Assembly, which appointed him President of the Council. As a candidate for the presidency of the republic, when Louis Napoleon was elected, he received nearly a million and a half of votes out of 7,327,345. On the coup d'état of December 1851, Cavaignac was arrested, but released after a short detention; and though he consistently refused to give in his adhesion to the Empire, he was permitted to reside in France without molestation. He died, 28th October 1857, at his country house near Tours. Cavaignac was an able soldier, a zealous republican, and in every way an honourable man. See his Life by Deschamps (2 vols. Paris, 1870).

Cavaillon (ancient Cabellio), a town of the French department of Vaucluse, 18 miles SE. of Avignon by rail, with a cathedral, and some Roman remains. Pop. 5164.

Cavalcanti, GUIDO, Italian poet, born in 1230, Guelph, by the Ghibellines, a daughter of one of was banished, for mercantile transactions with a whose chiefs he had married, and returned in broken health to Florence only to die there, about 1300. His works -sonnets, ballads, and canzoniof thought, although his epicurean philosophy are remarkable alike from their language and depth gained him, among his contemporaries, the reputa tion of an atheist. See Ercole, Guido Cavalcanti e le sue Rime (Milan, 1885).-Another of the name, BARTOLOMMEO (1503-62), a noble and eloquent Florentine, led a revolt against the Medici, and was afterwards employed by Pope Paul III.

Cavalcaselle, GIOVANNI BATTISTA, Italian art writer, born 22d January 1820, at Legnago, early visited the art centres of Italy, and in 1846 proceeded to Germany, where he met J. A. Crowe (q.v.), with whom he returned to Italy. Banished for his share in the revolution of 1848, he accompanied Crowe to London, and there their first joint work, Early Flemish Painters (1857; 3d ed. 1879), was published. Cavalcaselle returned to Italy in History of Painting in Italy (1864-71), Titian 1858, and afterwards published with Crowe the (1876), and Raphaël (1883), besides independent works of less importance. He was head of the art department of the ministry of Public Instruction at Rome. Died in 1897.

Cavalier (Fr., from Lat. caballus, a nag'), from 'horseman' acquired the meaning of 'knight' or 'gallant,' in which sense it is used by Shakespeare (Henry V., III. 24), like cavalero, in Henry IV., Part II., V. iii. 62. In 1641 Cavaliers' was applied as a nickname to Charles's partisans in opposition to the Roundheads, or friends of the Parliament; and from a term of reproach it came to be adopted as a title of honour, until, after 1679, it was superseded by 'Tory.' For the Cavalier Parliament' (1661-79), see CHARLES II.

Cavalier, JEAN, a journeyman baker, from Ribaute, near Anduze, who, born in 1681, in 1702 became a famous leader of the Camisards (q.v.), withal a prophet and preacher. He surrendered to Villars in 1704, and entered the service of Savoy; but in 1711 we find him settled with a British pension in England, and he died at Chelsea, governor of Jersey, 17th May 1740. See a long article in vol. ix. of the Dict. of National Bio

Cavaignac, LOUIS EUGENE, born in Paris, 15th October 1802, was a son of General Jean Baptiste Cavaignac (1762-1829), a member of the National Convention. Educated for the military profession, he first served in the Morea, and afterwards in Africa, whither he was sent in 1832 into a kind of honourable exile, in consequence of a too free expression of opinion in favour of republican institutions. Here he won great distinction by his energy, coolness, and intrepidity, was made chef de bataillon in 1837, and rose to the rank of brigade-general in 1844 In 1848 he was appointed governor-general of Algeria, but in view of the impending revolu tionary dangers, was called to Paris and assumed the office of Minister of War. He was appointed military dictator in order to suppress the formid-graphy (1887). able insurrection of June, which he quelled only after a most obstinate contest continued from the 23d to the 26th June. It is estimated that a greater number of Frenchmen fell in the struggle than in the bloodiest battles of the first Empire. Cavaignac's clemency to the vanquished was equal

Cavaliere Servente. See CICISBEO. Cavalry is a general name for horse-soldiers or troopers trained to act in a body. In the British army there are 31 regiments of European, and 30 of native Indian cavalry. The former comprise 2 regiments of Life Guards (red), 1 of Horse Guards

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