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See Ned Ward, The Secret History of Clubs of all Descriptions (1709); Ward, Account of all the most Remarkable Clubs and Societies in London and Westminster (1750); C. Marsh, The Clubs of London, with Anecdotes of their Members (2 vols. 1832); The London Clubs (1853); Admiral W. H. Smyth, Sketch of the Royal Society Club (4to, 1860); J. Timbs, Club-life in London (2 vols. 1866); J. Strang, Glasgow and its Clubs (1857); W. Arnold, The Sublime Society of Beefsteaks (1871); Col. G. J. Ivey, Clubs of the World (1880); Sir P. G. Egerton, Grillion's Club (privately printed, 1880); Club-Almanach (Paris, 1883-84, discontinued); L. Fagan, The Reform Club (4to, 1887); F. G. Waugh, Members of the Athenæum Club (1824-87; privately printed, 1888). The rights and obligations of members are discussed by A. F. Leach, Club Cases (1879), and J. Wertheimer, Law relating to Clubs (1885).

Clugny, or CLUNI, an industrial town in the French department of Saône-et-Loire, on the Grosne, 15 miles NW. of Mâcon by rail. Pop, 3653. The famous Benedictine abbey, founded here in 910 by the Duke of Aquitaine, had two centuries later attained a degree of splendour and influence unrivalled by any similar institution of the middle ages; at its height, Clugny stood second to Rome alone as a chief centre of the Christian world. It was the asylum of kings, the training-school of popes; its abbot took rank above all others, issued his own coinage, and was a power in the political world; it was enormously wealthy, and covered Europe with its affiliated foundations. Two hundred priors of subordinate houses assembled here in the 12th century, and in the 15th century there were said to be over 2000 religious houses that were offshoots of or connected with the abbey in France, Italy, Spain, England, Germany, and Poland; although the alphabetical list of Clugniac foundations in the 15th century, at the end of the Bibliotheca Cluniacensis, represents only 825. In England the extension of the order dates from the Conquest; William and his successors were devoted to Clugny, and numerous foundations were shortly established, of which the priory of Lewes (1077) became the chief. At their ultimate suppression in 1539 these numbered 35, exclusive of such Scottish foundations as Paisley and Crossraguel. In the 16th century, the conventual buildings at Clugny covered upwards of 25 acres. The grand basilica or abbey church, commenced by St Hugh, the eighth abbot, in 1089, and dedicated by Pope Innocent II. in 1131, was, until the construction of St Peter's at Rome, the largest church in Christendom. Of this magnificent and imposing pile one tower and part of the transept alone remain; the site of the nave is traversed by a road. The abbey, over which cardinal-ministers and princes of the blood had once ruled as commendatorabbots (see COMMENDAM), had outlived both its utility and its importance; it was no longer a great seat of learning, and its 300 monks had dwindled to 40, when in 1790 the order to whom Pope Urban II. had said, 'Ye are the light of the world,' was finally suppressed. Its library was the richest and most important in France, and its archives are of the greatest value to monastic history and that of the early Norman kings of England. In 1562 the Huguenots sacked the abbey and scattered its records; but most of this literary treasure was afterwards wonderfully recovered. Many records were burned along with religious books by the mob in 1793, and the library was again scattered; it was generally supposed that nothing had survived, but in 1829 no fewer than 225 folio and quarto volumes of charters and MSS. were discovered in the town-hall, of which many are preserved in the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, and some have found their way to the British Museum. For those relating to England, see Sir G. F. Duckett's valuable Record-Evidence of Cluni (1886), and Charters

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and Records of Cluni (1888). See also the works of Pignot, the historian of the order, Lorain, Penjon, Cuchérat, and Champly. The ancient palace in Paris of the Abbots of Clugny became in 1833 a museum of antiquities.

Clumber, a seat of the Duke of Newcastle 3 miles SE. of Worksop. It has given name to a breed of Spaniels. See SPANIEL.

Clunes, a gold-mining township of Victoria, 119 miles NW. of Melbourne. Pop. 4717.

Clupeidæ. See HERRING, SARDINE, SPRAT. Clu'sia, a genus of tropical trees and shrubs of the order Clusiaceae or Guttiferæ (q.v.), some of which are commonly called Balsam trees, from their resinous or balsamic products. They are very often epiphytes, growing on larger trees, but also take root in the ground. C. rosea, a native of the West Indies and tropical America, yields a resin, which is used as an external applica tion in veterinary medicine, and for covering boats instead of pitch. The abundant resin exuding from the disc of the flowers of C. insignis, the Wax-flower of Demerara, is used to make a gently stimulating and soothing plaster. The name was given in honour of the botanist and traveller Clusius, or Charles de Lecluse (1526–1609). Clusium. See CHIUSI.

Clwyd, a river of North Wales, rises on Craig Bronbanog, in Denbighshire, and enters the Irish Sea after an irregular course of 30 miles. Below Ruthin it flows through the fertile Vale of Clwyd, 24 miles long, and 2 to 7 wide.

Clyde (Welsh Clwyd, 'strong'), a world-famous river and firth of south-west Scotland. The river rises as Daer Water at an altitude of 1600 feet, and runs 106 miles northward and north-westward, round Tinto Hill (2335 feet), and past Lanark, Bothwell, Glasgow, and Renfrew, till at Dumbarton it merges in the firth. Its drainage area is estimated by Sir John Hawkshaw at 1481 sq. m., of which 111 belong to the South, North, and Rotten Calders, 127 to the Kelvin, 200 to the Black and White Carts, and 305 to the Leven and Loch Lomond. Tributaries higher up are Powtrail Water, Little Clydes Burn, Donglas Water, Medwyn Water, Mouse Water with its deep gorge through the Cartland Crags, and, near Hamilton, the Avon. Of these, Little Clydes Burn, rising close to head-streams of the Tweed and the Annan, is often wrongly regarded as the Clyde's true source. In the four miles of its course near Lanark the river descends from 560 to 200 feet, and forms the four celebrated Falls of ClydeBonnington, Corra, Dundaff, and Stonebyres Linns, of which the finest, Corra, makes a triple leap of 84 feet. Above the falls the Clyde is a beauti ful pure trout-stream, traversing pastoral uplands; below, it flows through a rich fertile valley, here broadening out into plain, there pent between bold wooded banks. But its waters become more and more sluggish, begrimed, and polluted, the nearer they get to Glasgow, where experiments made with floats in 1857-58 showed that the sewage sometimes took a whole week to travel only 2 miles. Since 1765 upwards of ten millions sterling has been expended on rectifying and deepening the channel from Glasgow to Dumbarton, no less than 32,261,776 cubic yards of materials having been lifted by steam-dredgers during 1844-87. result has been that whereas a hundred years ago there was a depth at low-water of 15 inches, now they have at Glasgow from 18 to 20 feet at low-water;' and that whereas even lighters could once 'not pass to and from Glasgow except it be in the time of flood or high-water at spring-tides,' now a steamer has been docked at Glasgow that

The

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is second in size only to the Great Eastern. In 1812 Henry Bell (q.v.) launched on the Clyde the first boat in Europe successfully propelled by steam; and since then the river's shipping and shipbuilding (the latter dating from about 1718) have both grown enormously, 404,383 tons having been launched from the Clyde yards in 1883.-The FIRTH, which some make begin at Glasgow (the highest point of the tide), and some not until Gourock, extends 12 miles westward and 52 southward, and broadens from 1 mile at Dumbarton to 12 at Dunoon, and 37 at Ailsa Craig. It sends off the Gareloch, Loch Long, Holy Loch, and the Kyles of Bute; contains the islands of Bute, Arran, and the two Cumbraes; is bordered along its ancient sea-margin with an almost continuous fringe of seaports and watering-places (Greenock, Rothesay, Ayr, &c.); and, like the last 14 miles of the river, is one of the world's chief commercial waterways. See the reports of Smeaton (1755), Rennie (1799), Hawkshaw (1876), and Deas (1881-hour, or that of the vehicles which occupied two 87); Dorothy Wordsworth's Tour in Scotland (1874); W. J. Millar's The Clyde from its Source to the Sea (1888); and Pollock's Dictionary of the Clyde (1888). For the Clydesdales,' or famous Lanarkshire horses, see HORSE.

Coaching. One of the most remarkable circumstances in connection with this subject is the comparatively short period in which its history is comprised. It might very reasonably have been thought that the exigencies of commerce, no less than those of private requirements, would, even in the earliest times, have demanded a system of communication as speedy as possible, and that some steps would have been taken to secure the desired end. Such, however, scarcely appears to have been the case; and merchants and squires contented themselves with whatever facilities for travel were afforded by the stage-wagon, a cum.brous vehicle drawn at a walk by six, eight, or more horses. Passing over all earlier attempts to organise road traffic, we may come to the year 1659, when the first stage-coach-that from Coventry-was started. Its pace was probably not faster than that of the Oxford coach, which went from London to Oxford in two days, at about 3 miles an

Clyde, LORD. See CAMPBELL (SIR COLIN). Clyster (Gr., from kluzō, 'I wash out'), called also enema, a medicine administered in the liquid form by the rectum, or lower end of, the intestine. It is used either for the purpose of procuring evacuation of the bowels, or of conveying stimulants (brandy, wine, &c.), other medicines, or nourishing substances into the system. A nourishing clyster, in order to be effective, must be specially prepared or digested by means of pepsin, pancreatin, or some such agent; for the rectum, though it has the power of absorbing food already digested, is not capable of performing the functions of digestion. A nourishing or medicinal clyster must be administered in as small bulk as possible; no more than a wine-glassful should be introduced at one time, or it will probably be rejected. For the purpose of procuring evacuation, on the other hand, as large a quantity should be introduced as possible; simple warm or cold water may be employed, or in special cases, various cathartics may be used in addition, such as colocynth, aloes, castor-oil, or turpentine made into an emulsion with yolk of egg; and sometimes carminatives, to expel air. The introduction of a teaspoonful of glycerine is often very effectual in procuring an action of the bowels when other methods fail. Medicinal clysters should only be used under medical superintendence. An injecting syringe, with a flexible tube and a doubleaction valve, is usually employed for the administration of remedies in this way.

Clytemnes'tra, in Homeric legend, the wife of Agamemnon. See AGAMEMNON, ÆSCHYLUS. Cnidus, or GNIDOS, the chief of the cities of the Doric league in Asia Minor, stood on the promontory of Triopion (now Cape Krio), in Caria, and, with its two harbours, was long a wealthy and flourishing port. Here, in 394 B.C., a great sea-fight took place between the Athenians under Conon, and the Spartans under Pisander, in which the former were victorious. The city was a principal seat of the worship of Aphrodite, who was therefore sometimes called the Cnidian goddess. One of its many temples contained the famous statue in Parian marble of the naked Aphrodite by Praxiteles. Excavations were made on the site in 1857-58, and many of the marbles then recovered are in the British Museum. Coach-building. See CARRIAGE.

Coach Dog. See DALMATIAN DOG.

days and a half in compassing the distance between London and Dover. În 1700 a week was required to go from London to York; and two days from London to Salisbury. The first mail-coach was not put on the road until 1784, when Mr John Palmer, manager of the Bath theatre, and M. P. for Bath, overcame strenuous opposition, and induced Mr Pitt contract rate of speed was 5 miles an hour, by his to supersede Allen's system of postboys, whose (Palmer's) plan of carrying the mails by mail-coach. 1784, on which day Mr Palmer entered government The first experiment was made on the 8th of August service as comptroller-general of the Post-office. at eleven at night. The other coach left Bristol at four in the afternoon, arriving in London at eight the next morning, the up journey thus taking sixteen hours, or two hours longer than the down journey. The scheme appears to have worked so well from the beginning, that the municipal authorities of the more important towns soon petitioned for the adoption of Mr Palmer's plan in their districts, and in nearly every instance the request was complied with. It was part of the new scheme that the mails should be timed at each stage, so that they might all reach London at about the same hour; and that the outgoing mailcoaches should start at the same time from the General Post-office. At the outset the regulation pace was 6 miles an hour; but in course of time this was increased until the coaches were rated at 10 miles per hour.

A coach left London at 8 A. M. and reached Bristol

This acceleration, however, was due to causes other than the judgment and enterprise of Mr Palmer, the skill of coachmen and coach-builders, and the employment of better horses. At the period above mentioned the bad state of the roads precluded quick travelling, and although we find that roads were the subjects of legislation as early Telford that road-travelling was, so to speak, revoas 1346, it was not till the days of Macadam and lutionised. The former returned to Ayrshire from

America in the year 1783, and after studying roadmaking as a science while one of the road commissioners in Scotland, came south to Bristol in 1816, became surveyor in that district, and was con

sulted as to the making of other roads in all parts of England. As soon as Macadam's plans were carried into effect, good roads took the place of bad ones; quick travelling commenced, and paved the way for the palmy days of coaching, until, in 1836, there were fifty-four mail-coaches in England, thirty in Ireland, and ten in Scotland. Meantime the stage-coaches had grown in number, travelled at a high rate of speed, and necessitated the employment of a vast amount of capital. Among the best-known London proprietors were Chaplin,

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Horne, Sherman, Nelson, and Mountain; the two first named having the judgment to discern that the railways would eventually drive coaches off the road, threw in their lot with the London and Birmingham Railway. It was not till after George IV. came to the throne that coaching reached the zenith of its fame in respect of organisation, pace, appointments, and one may, perhaps, say coachmanship as well. The palmy days,' concerning which so much has been written, began about 1820, and coaching was possibly at its most perfect pitch about 1836. For about four years it enjoyed this repute, and then the downward journey, far nore rapid than the upward one, began; one by one coaches were taken off; coaching inns became roadside public-houses; coachmen and guards found other occupations, or migrated to the workhouse; stables were emptied, and admiration for coaching gave way to appreciation of railroad-travelling. Of amateur coachmen and coachmanship in the last century comparatively little is known; but, when good roads were the rule instead of the exception, gentleman coaching' became a fashionable amusement. Mr John Warde, the famous master of foxhounds, was a renowned whip, to whom were due the thanks of the old coachmen for having originated the idea of placing springs under the coach-box. The name of Peyton has ever been connected with the annals of the road; the Messrs Walker, Sir St Vincent Cotton, the Marquis of Worcester, Mr Henry Villebois, Mr Maxse, Mr Jerningham, Mr Sackville Gwynne, Sir Belling han Graham, Mr Stevenson, Hon. Fitzroy Stanhope, Hon. T. Kenyon, Colonel Sibthorpe, and Mr C. Buxton are among the number of those who patronised the road by every means in their power. Others, scarcely less enthusiastic, succeeded them, until there were no road-coaches to be driven.

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So far as London is concerned, the link between the past and present was broken in the year 1858, when the Brighton Age,' under the management of Clarke, assisted by the Duke of Beaufort and Sir George Wombwell, was given up; and for eight years there was no road-coach running out of London. But the love for the road was only slumbering, it was not dead; and it was on the Brighton road that the first step was taken in the coaching revival in 1866. In that year Captain Haworth, Captain Laurie, and a few others, started the Old Times' to Brighton. At the end of the season the confederacy was broken up, and in 1867 the Duke of Beaufort, Mr Chandos Pole, and Mr B. J. Angel took the road, running a coach each way daily. Between then and the present time coaches have been started to Sevenoaks, Tunbridge Wells, Virginia Water, Dorking, Sunbury, High Wycombe, Westerham, Reigate, Watford, Windsor, Rochester, Guildford, Portsmouth, Maidenhead, &c. Some only lasted a short time, and since the revival began there have been many changes in routes and proprietors. Thus in 1884 only four coaches were left, the Brighton road being vacant; whilst in 1888 there were eight coaches running out of London, and three of them on the Brighton road. From time to time coaches have also been put on in the provinces.

The year 1877 was a somewhat memorable one in the annals of modern coaching, as on 4th November the Old Times' was put on to St Albans, and has run every lawful day' since without a break, though not always on the same route. In 1888 it was put upon the Brighton road, and on the 11th July James Selby, its coachman since 1877, drove from Piccadilly to Brighton and back in seven hours fifty minutes, the outward journey being accomplished in three hours fifty minutes and ten seconds. This performance, though a good one, is not a record,' as in 1837 Israel Alexander, a pro

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COAL

fessional on the Brighton road, drove down with the Queen's first speech in three hours forty minutes. The meets of the Four-in-hand Driving Club and the Coaching Club are justly regarded as among the sights of the season. The former is the more exclusive as well as the elder, having been established in 1856, chiefly at the suggestion of Mr W. Morritt. The club could not entertain one quarter of the applications for membership, so in 1870 the Coaching Club was established, and has been gradually increasing in size. For the first driving club of which we have any account, we must go back to the year 1807, the date of the establishment of the Bensington Driving Club-the B.D.C. it was generally known as-which was limited to twenty-five members. For the first sixteen years of the club's existence its members used to drive down two days in the season to Bensington, near Wallingford, in Oxfordshire, and twice to Bedford; but in 1823 the Bensington gatherings were given up. A second club was founded in 1808 by Mr Charles Buxton. The new association was called the Fourhorse Club; but it was sometimes, though wrongly, designated as the Whip Club, and the Four-in-hand Club. The Four-horse Club was broken up in 1820, was revived in 1822, but became extinct altogether about 1829. The B.D.C. was then the only body of the kind until 1838, when Lord Chesterfield established the Richmond Driving Club, the members of which, after meeting at Chesterfield House, drove to Richmond for dinner. This club, however, came to an end after nine or ten years; and in 1852 the B.D.C. was broken up. From that time there was no driving club until the present Four-in-hand Driving Club was founded as already mentioned. See Driving, by the Duke of Beaufort (Badminton series, 1888).

Coadju'tor (Lat.), a fellow-worker, not as principal but as second, an assistant. Technically, it is applied in ecclesiastical law to one appointed to assist a bishop, whom age or infirmity has disabled. If a bishop or archbishop is too ill to execute a resignation, the crown may give the dean and chapter power to appoint a bishop-coadjutor.

cation of a liquid, or part of a liquid, as when the Coagulation, the amorphous (q.v.) solidificasein of milk is solidified by rennet in making Cheese (q.v.), or the white of an egg by boiling. The process varies in various substances. Albumen, or the white of an egg, coagulates at a temperature of 160°. Milk is coagulated or curdled by the action of rennet or by acids. The fibrin in the blood, chyle, and lymph of animals is coagulated by the separation of these fluids from the living body. See

BLOOD.

Coahuila, a state of Mexico, separated from Texas by the Rio Grande, has an area of 59,280 sq. m., partly mountainous, and forming in the west a part of the wilderness of the Bolson de Mapimi. The climate is healthy, although extremes of heat and cold are usual. The state is rich in minerals, especially silver, and coal has been found. It has valuable pasturage, and in many parts a most fertile soil; but no district of Mexico is so little known, or has been less developed. The construction of the National Railway has, however, prepared the way for a change, and already several cotton-factories and a large number of flour-mills are in operation. Pop. (1882) 144,594. Capital, Saltillo (q.v.).

Coaita. See SPIDER-MONKEY.

Coal, in the sense of a piece of glowing fuel (and hence a piece of fuel, whether dead or alive), is a word common to all the languages of the Gothic stock (A.S. col, Icel. kol, Ger. kohle). The different sorts of fuel are distinguished by prefixes, as charcoal, pit-coal; but in England, owing to the

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