CRADDOCK

and a line of detached forts now defends the city, Its older portion is a labyrinth of narrow, dark, and deserted streets, but contains many fine specimens of Gothic architecture in its churches and other edifices; and some handsome buildings are also to be seen in the more modern suburbs. On the Wawel rock, in the midst of the houses, rises the old castle of the Polish kings, degraded now to a barrack. The neighbouring cathedral (1320–59) is a splendid pile, containing the graves of John Sobieski, Poniatowski, Kosciusko, and many more heroes, with Thorwaldsen's statue of Christ. The university was founded in 1364, by Casimir the Great, and reconstituted under the Jagellons in 1394. Long the centre of light for Poland, it had decayed under Jesuit influence, but was reorganised and reopened in 1817, and now is attended by more than 800 students. It possesses a library of 150,000 volumes, and many MSS. of great value in connection with Polish history. Cracow has important fairs, and its trade and manufactures (chemicals, tobacco, beer, agricultural implements, &c.) have of late years greatly revived. Three miles west of the city is a grassy mound, 150 feet high, reared in 1820-23 to the memory of Kosciusko. It is composed of earth taken from all the patriotic battle-fields of Poland. The population has varied much at different periods, from 80,000 in the 16th century to 10,000 at the end of the 18th, 49,835 in 1869, 66,095 in 1880, and 76,025 in 1890, of whom

20,600 were Jews.

Cracow was founded by Krak, Prince of Poland, from whom it derives its name, about the year 700, became the capital of Poland in 1320, and continued such till 1609, when that honour was transferred to Warsaw. It was taken by the Bohemians in 1039, by the Tartars in 1241, by the Swedes in 1655 and 1702, and by the Russians in 1768. On the third partition of Poland, in 1795, it was assigned to Austria. From 1809 to 1815 it formed part of the duchy of Warsaw. The congress of Vienna established it as a republic, with a territory of 425 sq. m., and containing about 140,000 inhabitants, under the protectorate of Russia, Prussia, and Austria. Internal dissensions between the nobles and the common people afforded a pretence for interference, and the sympathy shown for the cause of Polish independence was made the ground of the annexation of Cracow to the Austrian dominions (1846).

See POLAND.

Craddock, CHARLES EGBERT, is the pen-name of Miss Mary Noailles Murfree, born near Murfreesborough, in Texas, about 1851, and early disabled by paralysis. She is known as author of In the Tennessee Mountains (1884), Where the Battle was Fought (1884), Down the Ravine (1885), The Prophet of the Great Smoky Mountains (1885), The Despot of Bromsedge Core (1888), and other stories. Crag and Tail, a term used to designate a peculiar hill conformation, in which a bold and precipitous front exists on one aspect of a hill, while the opposite is formed of a sloping declivity.

Castle Rock, Edinburgh.

Fine examples of this structure occur in and around Edinburgh, where the bold crag' faces the west and the tail' slopes towards the east; as, for example, the Castle rock, precipitous and unap proachable on every side except to the east. The

structure owes its origin to the juxtaposition of rocks of variable degrees of durability-the harder and more durable rocks having resisted denudation, and so protected the more readily eroded rocks that occur on the lee side of the former. The crag and tail phenomena of central Scotland and other regions which have been subjected to extreme glaciation (see GLACIAL PERIOD) is due to glacial erosion and accumulation. The crag faces the direction from which the ice came, and thus by opposing its advance induced excessive erosion upon the ground immediately in front. A hollow has thus usually been scooped out in this place, and continued along either side of the obstruction for some little distance. This somewhat crescentshaped hollow is well seen on the west side of Edinburgh Castle rock, sweeping round on the north by Princes Street Gardens (the old Nor' Loch), and on the south by the valley of the Cowgate. The morainic material dragged along underneath the ice accumulated in the rear of the crag, so that the strata in that position are usually covered to a greater or less depth with boulderclay, &c. The High Street of Edinburgh is thus built upon morainic materials.

Craig, JOHN, Scottish Reformer, was born in 1512, next year lost his father at Flodden, and was educated at St Andrews. He joined the Dominiafter a brief imprisonment (1536) went to Rome. cans there, but fell under suspicion of heresy, and Through Cardinal Pole he gained admission to the Dominican convent of Bologna, where be became the master of novices; next a copy of Calvin's Institutes fell in his way, and converted him to Protestantism. On 18th August 1559 he was lying in the dungeon of the Inquisition, condemned to suffer next morning at the stake, when Pope Paul IV. died, and the mob broke open the prisons, and him; a dog brought him a purse of gold as he was set the prisoners at liberty. A bandit befriended wandering helpless through a forest; he escaped to Vienna, and there preached in his friar's habit, one of his hearers being the Archduke Maximilian. Presently the new pope, learning his whereabouts, demanded his surrender; but Maximilian gave him land. In 1563 he was appointed coadjutor to Knox, a safe-conduct, and in 1560 he returned to Scotof having been privy to Rizzio's murder; in 1567 and with him was accused by the Earl of Bedford he incurred some censure for proclaiming, under strong protest, the banns between Queen Mary and Bothwell; and in 1572 he was sent to 'illumin ate the dark places' in Angus and Aberdeenshire. He came back to Edinburgh in 1579 as a chaplain to James VI., took a leading part in the church's affairs, and had a share with Melville in the Second Book of Discipline. He was the author of the 'Confession of Faith' or first National Covenant, 'subscribed by the king's majesty and his household and sundry others' at Edinburgh, 28th January 1580. He withstood the restoration of prelacy; but his comparative moderation was not seldom displeasing to the 'popes of Edinburgh.' He died 12th December 1600. His Short Summe of the whole Catechisme (1581) has been reprinted in fac-simile, with a valuable introductory Memoir by T. G. Law (Edin. 1883).

Craig, THOMAS, writer on feudal law, was born in 1538, either at Craigfintray (Aberdeenshire) or in Edinburgh. From St Andrews he passed in 1555 to the university of Paris, and in 1563 was admitted an advocate at the Scottish bar, being next year appointed justice-depute of Scotland, and in 1573 sheriff-depute of Edinburgh. Whilst head of the criminal judicature, he did not neglect the muses, as was evidenced by an epithalamium on Queen Mary's marriage with Darnley and a poem on the

birth of James VI. Besides several more Latin poems, and the masterly Jus Feudale (1608; 3d ed. 1732), by which he is chiefly remembered, he wrote three other Latin treatises-on James VI.'s right to succeed to the English throne, on the advisability of a union between the two kingdoms, and on the homage controversy between Scotland and England. He stood high in favour with James, who wanted to knight him in 1603, and, on his declining, dispensed with the ceremony, but gave him the title. He died 26th February 1608. See his Life by P. F. Tytler (1823).

Craig-fluke (Pleuronectes cynoglossus), a flat fish in the same genus as Dab, Plaice, and Flounder (q.v.).

Craigleith Stone, a siliceous sandstone belonging to the lower carboniferous series, quarried at Craigleith, 2 miles W. of Edinburgh, and largely used for building in that city, for which it is admirably adapted by its purity and durability.

Craik, GEORGE LILLIE, a versatile and industrious author, born at Kennoway, Fife, in 1798, was educated for the church at St Andrews University, but, preferring a literary career, came to London in 1826, and formed a connection with Charles Knight. His first work of importance was the Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties (1831). He also contributed largely to the Penny Magazine and Cyclopædia, and in 1839 became editor of the Pictorial History of England, some of the most valuable chapters of which were written by himself. From these his Sketches of the History of Literature and Learning in England (6 vols. 1844) and his History of British Commerce (3 vols. 1844) were reprinted. In 1849 Craik was appointed to the chair of History and English Literature in Queen's College, Belfast, a situation which he occupied till his death on 25th June 1866. His other works include Spenser | (1845), Bacon (1846-47), Romance of the Peerage (1848-50), The English of Shakespeare (1856), History of English Language and Literature (1861; 9th abridged ed. 1883). His youngest daughter, Georgina Marion (Mrs May), born in 1831, began to write at nineteen, and had at her death in 1895 published some thirty novels and stories.

Craik, MRS. Dinah Maria Mulock, well known as the author of John Halifax, Gentleman, was born at Stoke-upon-Trent in 1826. She early took the burden of supporting an ailing mother and two younger brothers, and wrote stories for fashion-books, as well as for graver publications. Her first serious appearance as a novelist was in 1849, with her story The Ogilvies, which was followed by Olive, The Head of the Family, and Agatha's Husband. But she never surpassed or even equalled her domestic novel John Halifax (1857), which has had, and still continues to have an extraordinary popularity, and has been translated into French, German, Italian, Greek, and Russian. The scene is laid at Tewkesbury, where a marble medallion has been placed to her memory in the abbey. A pension of £60 a year, awarded to her in 1864, she set aside for authors less fortunate than herself. In 1865 she married Mr George Lillie Craik, a partner in the publishing house of Macmillan & Co. (nephew of the subject of the preceding article), and spent a period of quiet happiness and successful literary industry at her home, Corner House, Shortlands, Kent, where she died 12th October 1887. Much of Mrs Craik's verse is collected in Thirty Years' Poems (1881). She wrote a good deal for the magazines, and produced in all forty-six works, viz.-fourteen more novels, and several volumes of prose essays, including A Woman's Thoughts about Women (1858), and Conrerning Men, and other Papers (1888). See

CRAMP

Mrs Oliphant's sketch in Macmillan's Magazine (1887).

Crail, an antique little coast-town in the 'East Neuk' of Fife, 2 miles WSW. of Fife Ness, 10 SE. of St Andrews, and 43 NE. of Edinburgh by rail. There is a fragment of a castle of David L.; and the church, which was made collegiate in 1517, is an interesting Second Pointed structure. John Knox here preached his 'idolatrous sermon,' 9th June 1559; and in 1648, James Sharp was appointed minister. The fishing is not what it once was, and the harbour has little trade; but Crail is a pleasant summer-resort. It was made a royal burgh in 1306, and unites with the other six St Andrews burghs to return one member to parliament. Pop. (1861) 1238; (1881) 1148; (1891) 1115. Crake. See CORN-CRAKE.

Crambé, a genus of Cruciferæ, having a pod (silicula) of two unequal joints, of which the upper is globose and one-seeded, the lower abortive. Č. maritima is well known as Seakale (q.v.). C. tartarica, of Eastern Europe, with much divided leaves and a great fleshy root, is cultivated in Roumania as cauliflower, and its root is eaten either boiled or in salads.

Cramer, JOHANN BAPTIST, pianist, was born at Mannheim in 1771, the son of Wilhelm Cramer (1745-99), a musician of repute, who settled in London in 1772. From 1788 the son undertook concert tours on the Continent, and gained a high reputation as a facile and expressive performer. He founded the musical publishing firm which bears his name in 1828, and after some years' residence in Paris, died in London, 16th April 1858. Most of his compositions are now forgotten, but his series of Studies is a work of importance.

Cramp is a word applied to muscular contracway. tions of an irregular kind, in a somewhat variable

(1) In its common use, it denotes an involuntary and painful contraction of a voluntary muscle or group of muscles. It is most apt to occur when a muscle has been fatigued; though any muscle may be affected, those of the calves most often suffer. It is especially common in pregnant women and persons of a gouty diathesis, and is a prominent feature in some diseases, especially cholera. There is no specific for preventing it; each case must be treated on its merits. The contraction and accompanying pain is usually cut short if the affected muscle be stretched-e.g. in the case of the calfmuscles, the knee must be straightened and the foot bent up as far as possible towards the front of the leg, to lengthen the affected muscles to the utmost, and similarly with other cases.

(2) Writer's Cramp is the commonest and best known of a group of diseases called trade spasms. The person affected can use his fingers for any purpose, even the most delicate manipulations, so long as he does not attempt to write; but whenever he does so, the muscles refuse to obey his will, and the pen either drops from his hand

or

executes spasmodic purposeless movements. Similar conditions may occur in telegraphists and pianists-in fact, in any case where frequent and continued use of particular muscular actions is necessary. These distressing and troublesome affections have recently been cured in some cases by means of Massage (q.v.) and systematic gymnastic exercises of the affected parts.

(3) Bather's Cramp.-A good swimmer, while bathing, is seen to throw up his arms, perhaps is heard to cry out once, and then sinks to rise no more. It is said that bather's cramp' has been the cause of his death. This phrase, however, is merely an apology for ignorance: what has happened, and whether it is the same in all

birth of James VI. Besides several more Latin poems, and the masterly Jus Feudale (1608; 3d ed. 1732), by which he is chiefly remembered, he wrote three other Latin treatises-on James VI.'s right to succeed to the English throne, on the advisability of a union between the two kingdoms, and on the homage controversy between Scotland and England. He stood high in favour with James, who wanted to knight him in 1603, and, on his declining, dispensed with the ceremony, but gave him the title. He died 26th February 1608. See his Life by P. F. Tytler (1823).

Craig-fluke (Pleuronectes cynoglossus), a flat fish in the same genus as Dab, Plaice, and Flounder (q.v.).

Craigleith Stone, a siliceous sandstone belonging to the lower carboniferous series, quarried at Craigleith, 2 miles W. of Edinburgh, and largely used for building in that city, for which it is admirably adapted by its purity and durability.

Craik, GEORGE LILLIE, a versatile and industrious author, born at Kennoway, Fife, in 1798, was educated for the church at St Andrews University, but, preferring a literary career, came to London in 1826, and formed a connection with Charles Knight. His first work of importance was the Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties (1831). He also contributed largely to the Penny | Magazine and Cyclopædia, and in 1839 became editor of the Pictorial History of England, some of the most valuable chapters of which were written by himself. From these his Sketches of the History of Literature and Learning in Eng land (6 vols. 1844) and his History of British Commerce (3 vols. 1844) were reprinted. In 1849 Craik was appointed to the chair of History and English Literature in Queen's College, Belfast, a situation which he occupied till his death on 25th June 1866. His other works include Spenser (1845), Bacon (1846-47), Romance of the Peerage (1848-50), The English of Shakespeare (1856), History of English Language and Literature (1861; 9th abridged ed. 1883). His youngest daughter, Georgina Marion (Mrs May), born in 1831, began

to write at nineteen, and had at her death in 1895 published some thirty novels and stories.

Craik, MRS. Dinah Maria Mulock, well known as the author of John Halifax, Gentleman, was born at Stoke-upon-Trent in 1826. She early took the burden of supporting an ailing mother and two younger brothers, and wrote stories for fashion-books, as well as for graver publications. Her first serious appearance as a novelist was in 1849, with her story The Ogilvies, which was followed by Olive, The Head of the Family, and Agatha's Husband. But she never surpassed or even equalled her domestic novel John Halifax (1857), which has had, and still continues to have an extraordinary popularity, and has been translated into French, German, Italian, Greek, and Russian. The scene is laid at Tewkesbury, where a marble medallion has been placed to her memory in the abbey. A pension of £60 a year, awarded to her in 1864, she set aside for authors less fortunate than herself. In 1865 she married Mr George Lillie Craik, a partner in the publishing house of Macmillan & Co. (nephew of the subject of the preceding article), and spent a period of quiet happiness and successful literary industry at her home, Corner House, Shortlands, Kent, where she died 12th October 1887. Much of Mrs Craik's verse is collected in Thirty Years' Poems (1881). She wrote a good deal for the magazines, and produced in all forty-six works, viz.-fourteen more novels, and several volumes of prose essays, including A Woman's Thoughts about Women (1858), and Concerning Men, and other Papers (1888). See

CRAMP

Mrs Oliphant's sketch in Macmillan's Magazine (1887).

John

Crail, an antique little coast-town in the 'East Neuk' of Fife, 2 miles WSW. of Fife Ness, 10 SE. of St Andrews, and 43 NE. of Edinburgh by rail. There is a fragment of a castle of David L.; and the church, which was made collegiate in 1517, is an interesting Second Pointed structure. Knox here preached his 'idolatrous sermon,' 9th June 1559; and in 1648, James Sharp was ap pointed minister. The fishing is not what it once was, and the harbour has little trade; but Crail is a pleasant summer-resort. It was made a royal burgh in 1306, and unites with the other six St Andrews burghs to return one member to parliament. Pop. (1861) 1238; (1881) 1148; (1891) 1115. Crake. See CORN-CRAKE.

Crambé, a genus of Cruciferæ, having a pod (silicula) of two unequal joints, of which the upper is globose and one-seeded, the lower abortive. C. maritima is well known as Seakale (q.v.). C. tartarica, of Eastern Europe, with much divided leaves and a great fleshy root, is cultivated in Roumania as cauliflower, and its root is eaten either boiled or in salads.

Cramer, JOHANN BAPTIST, pianist, was born at Mannheim in 1771, the son of Wilhelm Cramer (1745–99), a musician of repute, who settled in London in 1772. From 1788 the son undertook concert tours on the Continent, and gained a high reputation as a facile and expressive performer. He founded the musical publishing firm which bears his name in 1828, and after some years' residence in Paris, died in London, 16th April 1858. Most of his compositions are now forgotten, but his series of Studies is a work of importance.

Cramp is a word applied to muscular contractions of an irregular kind, in a somewhat variable way.

(1) In its common use, it denotes an involuntary and painful contraction of a voluntary muscle or group of muscles. It is most apt to occur when a muscle has been fatigued; though any muscle may be affected, those of the calves most often suffer, It is especially common in pregnant women and persons of a gouty diathesis, and is a prominent feature in some diseases, especially cholera. There is no specific for preventing it; each case must be treated on its merits. The contraction and accompanying pain is usually cut short if the affected muscle be stretched-e.g. in the case of the calfmuscles, the knee must be straightened and the foot bent up as far as possible towards the front of the leg, to lengthen the affected muscles to the utmost, and similarly with other cases.

(2) Writer's Cramp is the commonest and best known of a group of diseases called trade spasms. The person affected can use his fingers for any purpose, even the most delicate manipulations, so long as he does not attempt to write; but whenever he does so, the muscles refuse to obey his will, and the pen either drops from his hand or executes spasmodic purposeless movements. Similar conditions may occur in telegraphists and pianists-in fact, in any case where frequent and continued use of particular muscular actions is necessary. These distressing and troublesome affections have recently been cured in some cases by means of Massage (q.v.) and systematic gymnastic exercises of the affected parts.

(3) Bather's Cramp.-A good swimmer, while bathing, is seen to throw up his arms, perhaps is heard to cry out once, and then sinks to rise no more. It is said that bather's cramp' has been the cause of his death. This phrase, however, is merely an apology for ignorance: what has happened, and whether it is the same in all