Images de page
PDF
ePub

CRANMER

bestirred himself in promoting the translation of the Bible (q.v.) and a service-book, in curtailing the number of holy days, in the suppression of the cult of St Thomas of Canterbury, and in negotiating an eirenicon with foreign Reformers. On the path, indeed, towards Protestantism, he was ever in advance of Henry VIII., though to Henry he surrendered his right of private judgment as completely as ever Ultramontane to Pope. Thus, writing in 1540 on the sacraments, he could wind up a thesis with This is mine opinion and sentence at this present, which nevertheless I do not temerariously define, but remit the judgment thereof wholly unto your majesty.' Henry repaid him with implicit confidence, and twice saved him from the plots of his enemies (1543-45).

On 28th January 1547 Henry died, and Cranmer sang mass of requiem for his soul. He had been slowly drifting into Protestantism; but now the inrushing tide swept him onward through all those religious changes by which the mass was converted into a communion-changes stereotyped in the Second Prayer-book of 1552. See ENGLAND (CHURCH OF), PRAYER-BOOK, ARTICLES, HOMILY, CATECHISM. During this as during the preceding reign he meddled little with affairs of state, though he was one of the council of regency. What he did do was not too creditable. In gross violation of the canon law he signed Seymour's deathwarrant; he had a chief hand in the deposition and imprisonment of Bishops Bonner, Gardiner, and Day; and won over by the dying boy-king's pleading, he reluctantly subscribed the instrument diverting the succession from Mary to Lady Jane Grey (1553). Herein he was guilty of conscious perjury, yet, the twelve days' reign over, he made no attempt to flee. On the contrary, he was roused to an outburst of indignation, rare with him, by a report that he had offered to restore the mass, had indeed restored it at Canterbury. In the heat of the moment he dashed off a letter, denouncing that report as a lie of the devil, which letter, unrevised, being prematurely circulated, on 14th September Cranmer was sent to the Tower, on 13th November was arraigned for treason, and, pleading guilty, was condemned to die. If he had been executed on that sentence, little could have been urged against his executioners, but he was reserved to be tried as a heretic, and, perchance, to recant his heresy. In March 1554 he was removed with Ridley and Latimer, to Bocardo, the common gaol at Oxford. He bore himself bravely and discreetly in a scholastic disputation, as also upon his trial before the papal commissioner, whose jurisdiction he refused to recognise. In October from the gaol he witnessed Latimer's and Ridley's martyrdom; in December judgment was pronounced against him; and on 14th February 1556 he was formally degraded, stripped of the mock vestments in which they had arrayed him. And now in rapid succession he signed form after form of recantation, seven in all, each more submissive than its predecessor. The last he transcribed on the morning of 21st March, and forthwith they brought him to St Mary's Church. If not before, he learned at least now from the sermon that he must burn; anyhow, when they looked for him to read his recantation, instead he retracted all that for fear of death' his hand had written contrary to the truth.' With a cheerful countenance he then hastened to the stake, and, fire being put to him, thrust his right hand into the flame, and kept it there, crying: This hath offended! Oh this unworthy hand!' Very soon he was dead.

Among Cranmer's forty-two writings, the chief of which have been edited by the Rev. H. Jenkyns (4 vols. 1833) and the Rev. J. E. Cox (2 vols. Parker Society, 1844-46), may be noticed his

[blocks in formation]

prefaces to the Bible (1540) and the First Prayerbook (1549); the Reformatio Legum Ecclesiasticarum his revision, happily abortive, of the Canon Law (q.v.)-first published in 1571; and A Defence of the True and Catholic Doctrine of the Sacrament (1550).

See Narratives of the Reformation, edited by J. G. Nichols (Camden Society, 1859), with a sketch of Cranmer by Ralph Morice, his secretary; Foxe's Acts and Monuments; Cooper's Athena Cantabrigienses (1858); Mr Gairdner's article in the Dictionary of National Biography (vol. xiii. 1888); Strype's Ecclesiastical Memorials Mary; and Lives of Cranmer by Strype (1694), Gilpin (1721); Shakespeare's Henry VIII. and Tennyson's Queen (1784), Todd (2 vols. 1831, with fine portrait), Le Bas (2 vols. 1833), Dean Hook, Lives of the Archbishops (vols. vi.-vii. 1868), Collette (1887), and Mason (1898).

Crannog, from the Gaelic crann, a tree,' a modern term employed to designate a species of lake-dwelling common in Scotland and Ireland, which consisted of an islet wholly or partially built up from the bottom of the loch by masses of brushwood, steadied by piling, and consolidated by stones and gravel, the whole being surmounted above the level of the water by a platform of timber, earth and stones, on which were wooden huts, often surrounded by palisades for better security. The earliest occurrence of the word in historical documents is in the Register of the Privy-council of Scotland in 1608, when the Crannokis of the Ylis' are classed with houssis of defence and strongholds to be given up to the king. See LAKEDWELLINGS.

worm.

[ocr errors]

Crape, a thin fabric made of silk, which has been tightly twisted, without removing the natural gum with which it is covered when spun by the It is woven as a thin gauze, then boiled to extract the gum, which causes the threads partially to untwist, and thus gives a waved and It is usually rough appearance to the fabric. dyed black, and used for mourning apparel. The nature of the finishing processes in the making of crape is kept secret by European manufacturers. In Japan, crape is manufactured by using alterand these are of a much closer twist than ordinary nately weft threads twisted in opposite directions, cold, then in hot, and again in cold water in rapid threads. When the piece is woven it is dipped in succession, and afterwards rolled and dried. The effect of these operations on the weft threads produces the crisp surface. Chinese and Japanese crapes are often white, with coloured designs, or in single colours, and used for shawls, scarfs, &c.

Crashaw, RICHARD (circa 1613-49), an English religious poet, was the son of a clergyman in the English Church, and was born in London about

1613. He was educated at the Charterhouse, and at Cambridge, where he obtained a fellowship at Peterhouse in 1637. His leanings towards Roman Catholicism prevented him from receiving Anglican orders, and in 1644 he was ejected from his fellowship by the parliament for refusing to take the Covenant. He went to Paris, adopted the Roman until about 1648, through Cowley's influence, he was Catholic faith, and suffered great pecuniary distress, introduced to Queen Henrietta Maria, who recom mended him to certain dignitaries of the church in Italy. He obtained a humble office in the household of Cardinal Palotta, but in April 1649, a few months before his death, he became sub-canon of the church of Our Lady of Loretto. In 1634 Crashaw published a volume of Latin poems, Epigrammatum Sacrorum Liber (2d ed. 1670), in which appeared the famous line on the miracle at Cana:

'Nympha pudica Deum vidit et erubuit' (The modest water saw its God and blushed). In 1646 appeared his Steps to the Temple; Sacred Poems, with other Delights of the Muses-in which

[blocks in formation]

there is much fervid poetry. The title of this collection, which is due to the editor, not the author, refers to its affinity with George Herbert's Temple. An edition (the third) was published at Paris in 1652, under the title Carmen Deo Nostro, with 12 vignette engravings designed by Crashaw. A collective edition of Crashaw's works was published in 1858, at London, by W. D. Turnbull, and a fuller edition in 1872 by Dr A. B. Grosart. Crashaw greatly resembles George Herbert in his cast of thought, and is not inferior to him in richness of fancy, though his conceits are more strained, and less under the control of taste. His devotional strains are nobly worded. Tutin's selections (2 vols. 1887 and 1900) are almost a complete edition.

Crassulaceæ, an order of calycifloral dicoty. ledons, allied to the Saxifrages, are herbaceous or sometimes shrubby plants, always more or less succulent. About 400 species are known in the genera, chiefly from warm and temperate countries and in dry, sunny situations. South Africa and Mexico are peculiarly rich in species. Sedum (stone-crop) and Sempervivum (house-leek) are the most familiar genera. These and allied forms, such as Echeveria, are largely used for bedding-out purposes, grown on rockwork, or cultivated in the succulent-house.' Crassula coccinea, which, like nearly all its very numerous (150) congeners comes from the Cape, is in general cultivation on account of the beauty of its flowers. PLANTS.

young men.

See SUCCULENT

Crassus, the surname of several old Roman families, among which that of the Licinii was most remarkable.-(1) LUCIUS LICINIUS, born in 140 B.C., was the best orator of his age, and was as distinguished for his wit as for his rectitude in the capacity of proconsul of Gaul. In 95 he was elected consul, along with Quintus Scævola, who had been his colleague in all his previous offices. During their consulship was enacted a rigorous law banishing from Rome all who had not the full rights of citizens, which imbittered the feelings of foreigners toward Rome, and was one of the chief causes of the Social War. As censor in 92 Crassus closed all the schools of the rhetoricians, believing that they exercised a bad influence on the minds of He died in 91 B.C., a few days after vigorously opposing in the senate the democratic consul L. Philippus. Crassus is one of the speakers in Cicero's De Oratore, and indeed is the representative of the writer's own opinions.-(2) MARCUS LICINIUS, surnamed Dives, the triumvir, was born sometime before 115 B.C. His father was a partisan of Sulla, and on the return of Marius and Cinna to Rome in 87 made away with himself. Cinna spared the boy's life, but subjected him to a jealous and dangerous surveillance, to escape which he went to Spain. He afterwards joined Sulla (83), and distinguished himself in the battle against the Samnites at the gates of Rome. As prætor he crushed the Servile revolt by the conquest of Spartacus at the battle of Lucania (71), and in the following year was made consul with Pompey, a colleague whom he hated. On the other hand, Cæsar valued the friendship of Crassus, the most wealthy of Roman citizens. He was a keen and far-seeing speculator, and devoted his entire energies to the accumulation of money. We are told that he even bought clever slaves, and had them taught lucrative arts that he might enjoy the profits. During his consulate, Crassus gave a feast to the people, which was spread on 10,000 tables, and distributed to every citizen a provision of corn for three months. Plutarch estimates his wealth at more than 7000 talents, and Pliny states that his lands were worth 8000 talents (say £2,000,000). About 60, Cæsar, Pompey, and Crassus entered into

CRATINUS

a private arrangement for their common benefit, which paction is known as the first triumvirate. In 55, as consul with Pompey, Crassus had Syria assigned him for his province, and began to make preparations of war against the Parthians, hoping both for glory and for gain. The latter end he effected in the meantime by plundering the towns and temples in Syria. At length, however, he set out, but was misled by a treacherous guide, and utterly defeated in the plains of Mesopotamia by the Parthians. Crassus now retreated to the town of Carrhæ, intending to pass into Armenia; but was beguiled into a conference with the Parthian general, Surenas, and was slain at the appointed place of meeting. His head was cut off and sent to Orodes, who is said to have poured melted gold into the dead lips, saying: 'Sate thyself now with that of which in life thou wert so greedy.' His quæstor, Cassius, with 500 cavalry, escaped into Syria; but the remaining Romans were scattered and made prisoners, or put to death.

Cratægus, a genus of Rosacea, sub-order Pomer, very nearly allied to Mespilus (Medlar) and Pyrus (Pear, Apple, &c.), but distinguished by the acute calycine segments, and by the round or oval fruit, closed at the apex, and concealing the upper end of the bony cells. The species are pretty numerous, natives of the temperate parts of the northern hemisphere, and in general have flowers in beautiful terminal corymbs. They are all large shrubs or small trees, more or less spiny, whence the name Thorn has been very generally applied to them. The only native of Britain is the common the species resemble it considerably in habit, size, Hawthorn (q.v.), (Crataegus Oxyacantha). Most of form of leaf, &c. A number of them are now fre quent in plantations and shrubberies in Britain, of Thorn (C. crus-galli), a native of North America which perhaps the most common is the Cock's-spur from Canada to Carolina. Its leaves are not lobed; its fruit rather larger than that of the hawthorn. The Azarole (C. Azarolus), a native of the south of Europe, and the Aronia (C. Aronia), a native of the Levant, are occasionally cultivated for their fruit, which is about the size of the Siberian crab, and is used either for dessert or for pies. orientalis (or odoratissima) and C. tanacetifolia have also fruit of considerable size. The latter is much eaten in Armenia. C. mexicana has a large fruit, like a small apple, but not eatable. It is, however, very ornamental. The wood of most of the species much resembles that of the hawthorn. thorn.-C. Pyracantha differs much in appearance It is common to graft the rarer species on the hawfrom most of the genus; being a pretty evergreen shrub, with lanceolate crenate leaves, and rich clusters of red berries, which remain on it all winter; a native of rocky places in the south of Europe and the Caucasus. It is often employed in known as the Pyracantha. Britain as an ornamental covering for walls, and is

Crater. See VOLCANOES.

C.

Cratinus, a Greek comic poet, born about 519 B.C., who did not begin to exhibit till sixty-five, and who died in 424. Next to his younger contemporaries, Eupolis and Aristophanes, he best represents the Old Attic comedy. He changed its outward form considerably, limiting the number of actors to three, and he was the first to add to comedy the interest of pungent and personal attack. The habits, manners, and institutions of his fellow. citizens he considered a legitimate mark for censorious satire. Even the great Pericles did not escape. Aristophanes repaid him in kind, but his allegation of habitual intemperance Cratinus himself admitted and defended humorously in his Pytine. His style was very metaphysical and

CRATIPPUS

ingenious. Of his twenty-one comedies, nine of which obtained the first prize in the public competitions, we possess only some fragments, collected by Meineke in his Fragmenta Comicorum Græcorum (Berlin, 1840).-There was also a younger CRATINUS, an Athenian contemporary of Plato, who belonged to the school of the Middle Comedy. Cratippus, a Peripatetic philosopher, a native of Mitylene, and a contemporary of Cicero, whose son Marcus he instructed at Athens in 44 B.C. Pompey visited him after Pharsalia, and Brutus turned aside to Athens to hear him, even while making preparations to meet Octavian and Antony. Nothing that Cratippus wrote has survived.

Crawford, THOMAS, sculptor, born in New York city in 1814, in 1834 went abroad for his studies, and settled in Rome, where he at first worked under the guidance of Thorwaldsen. Many of his earlier groups have found a place in Boston collections; his later works include the fine group known as the Washington monument, in the capitol park at Richmond, and the bronze figure of Liberty, surmounting the dome of the capitol at Washington. Stricken with blindness in 1856, Crawford died in London, 10th October 1857.

FRANCIS MARION CRAWFORD, novelist, son of the foregoing, was born in Tuscany, August 2, 1853. He had his education at Concord, New Hampshire; Trinity College, Cambridge; Karlsruhe, and Heidelberg. At Rome he devoted himself to the study of Sanskrit, and during 1879-80 was engaged in press work at Allahabad, where he was admitted to the Catholic Church. He was selected by the government committee to write the national ode at the centennial of the American Constitution, September 17, 1887. His first novel, Mr Isaacs (1882), was a book of striking and quite unusual merit, securing a new romantic element in certain of the aspects and contrasts of modern oriental life. Among its successors have been Dr Claudius, and To Leeward (1883); A Roman Singer, and An American Politician (1884); Zoroaster (1885); The Story of a Lonely Parish, and Saracinesca (1886); Marzio's Crucifix, and Paul Patoff (1887); With the Immortals (1888); Sant' Ilario (1889); A Cigarette Maker's Romance, Khaled, and The Witch of Prague (1891); Don Orsino (1892); Pietro Ghisleri, Marion Darche, and The Children of the King (1893); Katherine Lauderdale, Love in Idleness (1894); The Ralstons (1895); Taquisara (1896); Corleone (1897); Constantinople (1898), a description of the city; and Via Crucis (1899). Crawford, WILLIAM HARRIS, born in Virginia in 1772, practised law, and was elected to the United States senate in 1807 and 1811. Appointed minister to France in 1813, and secretary of the treasury in 1816, he was a Democratic candidate for the presidency in 1824; but none of the candidates securing a majority, the House of Representatives chose John Quincy Adams. Crawford returned to Georgia, where he was thrice elected circuit judge, and died 15th September 1834.

Crawford and Balcarres, ALEXANDER WILLIAM CRAWFORD LINDSAY, EARL OF, born in 1812, was educated at Eton and Cambridge, and succeeded his father in 1869. He gained a high reputation for his works on religion, philosophy, and art; and his researches into the annals of his own house enabled him in 1848 to prepare the case for his father's (Lord Balcarres) claims to the premier earldom of Scotland, as 24th Earl (cre. 1398). Besides Lives of the Lindsays (1849), and the Earldom of Mar (1882), he wrote Letters from the Holy Land (1838), Progression by Antagonism (1846), and Sketches of the History of Christian Art (1847), by which he is best remembered. His dominant idea, however, was the formation of a

[blocks in formation]

perfect library, to which for nearly half a century he devoted great industry and learning; and the library at Haigh Hall, near Wigan, is probably unrivalled among private collections. He died in Florence, 13th December 1880; his body, which for over seven months had been missing from the mausoleum at Dunecht, near Aberdeen, was found in a wood close by in July 1882.-His son and successor, JAMES LUDOVIC LINDSAY, born in 1847, was elected president of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1878-80, and F.R.S. in 1878, and received the degree of LL.D from Edinburgh University in admirably equipped observatory at his seat of 1882. In 1888 he presented to the nation the Dunecht, 12 miles W. of Aberdeen; and the aphave been transferred to a new observatory (1895) paratus, with the magnificent astronomical library, on Blackford Hill, near Edinburgh.

Crayer, CASPAR DE, a Flemish historical and portrait painter, was born at Antwerp in 1584. He lived first at Brussels, and afterwards at Ghent, where he died in 1669. The churches at Ghent contain many of his paintings, which are also common all over Flanders.

Crayfish (Astacus, Fr. écrevisse), a large freshdivision of the order Decapoda. The body conwater crustacean, in the long-tailed (Macrura) sists of two great divisions, the head and thorax protected by a rigid shield, and the abdomen or the characteristic tail of six separate rings. The integument exhibits Arthropod combination of lime

[graphic]

and Chitin (q.v.). There are altogether twenty nineteen pairs of segments and including the appendages, not eyes. The sensitive antennules and antennæ, the six appendages

crowded round the mouth, the four walking legs, great claws, the the little swimmerets under the tail, and the pair of large terminal paddles make up the series. These appendages, different in form and function, are all homologous.

SO

Crayfish (Astacus fluviatilis).

The muscles are well developed for working the tail, the appendages, and the stomach mill. The nervous system consists of brain and ventral chain of ganglia. The eyes are stalked and compound; the ear-sacs with their fringes of auditory hairs and inclosed foreign particles floating in a gelatinous fluid lie at the bases of the antennules, which also bear olfactory bristles. The most remarkable feature in the alimentary system is the gastric mill, a complex masticating apparatus in the fore-gut, the essential mechanism of which consists in the rapid clashing of three teeth-one dorsal and two lateral. On the walls of the stomach there are two limy concretions (gastroliths) which store lime preliminary to moulting. There is a large digestive gland opening into the small mid-gut; the hind-gut is long and straight. The circulatory system consists of a dorsal heart, whence the blood passes by arteries and capillaries to the body, thence

[blocks in formation]

by venous channels to the gills, and thence back again to the heart. The respiratory system includes twenty pairs of feathery gills lying under the shelter of the sides of the great shield. The ceaseless baling movement of one of the mouth appendages secures a current of water. The excretory system is represented by a 'green-gland' or kidney, lying behind the base of the antennæ, on which its opening, shielded by a prominent knob, may be readily seen. The reproductive system consists of three-lobed essential organs with paired ducts opening on the thoracic legs.

The

The eggs are laid in November or December, and are glued by a secretion to the abdominal legs of the mother. The young are hatched in May to July. They do not differ in any important features from the adults, and the crayfish has thus very much abbreviated the typical life-history. young escape from the inclosing egg-cases, to which they, however, adhere for a while by means of the strongly incurved claw-tips. The female with its crowd of attached young presents a curious and interesting appearance. The young crayfish moults eight times during its first year of life, five times in the second, twice in the third. The male is adult in its third year, and continues for some time at anyrate to moult twice a year. The female is mature in the fourth year, and has only one annual moult. The moulting is in part the result of the fact that the inclosing armature does not grow with the growth of the body. Reserve products of lime and glycogen accumulate before moulting; the old shell virtually dies; a new armature (at first soft) begins to be formed; the animal grows; the old husk, including the hard structures of the stomach, is cast; and the crayfish is left perfectly limp and helpless. The fatigue of the process is shown in the great mortality.

The crayfish is exclusively a fresh-water form, barring the fact that some related genera (Engæus, Cambarus, Parastacus) appear to be for the most part terrestrial. They usually make burrows by the sides of streams, and often lie at the mouths of their holes in wait for passing prey. They are chiefly nocturnal. In their diet they are strikingly omnivorous, eating most things available, from worms to water voles. Dead animals, molluscs, worms, and insect larvæ form their chief sources of supply. In captivity they may be kept for a while on bread crumbs. In certain cases they do not refrain from eating one another. Their chief enemies are said to be eels and otters.

Crayfishes, though fresh-water forms, have a peculiarly wide distribution. The English and Irish crayfish is a variety of A. fluviatilis, and is by authorities designated A. torrentium. It occurs all over Europe, except in Scandinavia and Scotland, but is locally limited by the presence of sufficient lime in the water for shell-forming purposes. Another variety of A. fluviatilis, A. nobilis, is also widely distributed on the Continent. This variety is much cultivated in France and elsewhere for the sake of its dainty though not abundant flesh. They are in best condition from May to August. In ponds for artificial breeding, the animals often fall victims to disease, probably of a fungoid character. In rivers they are sometimes netted, sometimes lured by a light in the darkness. Numerous other species occur both in the Old and New World, and along with the southern forms (Parastacidae) may be fairly called cosmopolitan. In the United States, where they are very common, their burrows sometimes cause crevasses or ruptures in the artificial dykes of rivers. The largest species measures over a foot in length. Crayfish-like forms appear in the Middle Mesozoic times, and a somewhat doubtful Astacus (A. philippi) has been found in the carboniferous limestone of Ireland. It is

CREAM

probable that they were originally marine. The term crayfish is often extended to the nearly related marine form, the Norway Lobster or Nephrops norvegicus (see LOBSTER). See Huxley's Cruyfish: an Introduction to Zoology (Inter. Sc. Series, 1877).

Crayon (Fr., a pencil'). Though used in French, and occasionally in English, to designate pencils generally, including those made of lead, the word crayon is more frequently applied in England to those small cylinders of charcoal, or of pipeclay or chalk coloured with various pigments, which are used for drawing. Cohesiveness is given to the paste of which the cylinders are formed by means of gum, wax, soap, &c. Crayon drawings are often remarkable for the delicacy and softness with which objects are represented, but they are deficient in power. See PENCIL, CHALK.

Cream is the fat of Milk (q.v.). It exists in minute globules throughout the bulk of milk as it comes from the cow. In virtue of being lighter than the watery portion of milk, cream gradually rises and forms a thin yellowish greasy layer on the surface. Devonshire cream, or clouted (i.e. clotted) cream, is obtained by heating milk in a shallow wide pan on a hot plate or over a slow charcoal-fire. The milk should stand in the pan for twenty-four hours before heating. It usually takes from half an hour to three-quarters of an hour to heat the milk completely; but it must not boil. It then stands for twenty-four hours, when the cream is skimmed off, and a little sugar thrown on the top. Whipped cream is cream or milk beat up with white of egg by means of a whisk. Lemon cream, Vanilla cream, &c. are made with milk, white of egg, and sugar, and flavoured. Cream cheese may be made of rich cream, or cream, milk, and rennet, tied up in a clean wet cloth, and kept for some days in a cool place, then put in a finer cloth, and placed for a day or two in a mould, with a weight upon it. The term cream is used frequently for anything superior in quality; thus the French, in referring to persons in the height of fashion, speak of La creme de la crême, the cream of cream.

CREAM SEPARATORS (Centrifugal).-The bestknown forms are the 'Laval,' the Danish,' and the Victoria'-the latter a recent invention of a Glasgow firm. Though they differ in form and in detail, the principle involved in the work of separating the butter is common to all. Advantage is taken of the difference existing between the specific gravity of cream and the watery part of milk. While yet warm the milk coming from the cow is run into a strong, spherical, steel vessel revolving at high speed. As the milk is carried round within the vessel (whether revolving hori zontally or vertically) it rises up the sides and stands as a wall, thus forming a lining of milk while the speed is maintained. The heavier part inclines outwards, and the light cream is forced inwards and forms an inner layer. From the positions indicated the separated cream and milk are conducted into different channels, and finally into different vessel receptacles. The advantages, as compared with the old method of flat setting (see MILK), are that the cream is got off inmediately; no time is allowed for the development of acidity in either the skim milk or cream, and more of the cream present can be removed-the proportion being as 13 is to 11. Small machines driven by hand, costing £13, and separating 12 gallons of milk an hour, do not give quite so good results as those driven by steam. Prices range. for those of sizes capable of separating 45 to 150 gallons of milk an hour, from £24 to £45 A steam turbine has recently been adopted as the means by which power is communicated. The

CREAM OF TARTAR

cost of a turbine separator, capable of doing 90 gallons per hour, is £46. See BUTTER, DAIRY.

Cream of Tartar exists naturally in grape juice, but being insoluble in alcohol, it is gradually deposited, in the form of argol, as the sugar of the juice becomes converted into alcohol by fermentation. In the preparation of cream of tartar the argol is dissolved in hot water, to which charcoal or fine clay is added, to take up the colouring matter; by boiling and filtering a clear colourless solution is obtained, from which, on cooling, the cream of tartar separates as crystals. These crystals, after being exposed on linen for several days, become whiter and constitute the crystals of tartar, or, when ground to powder, the cream of tartar. Although cream of tartar is, practically speaking, the bitartrate of potash, KHC,HO, (see TARTARIC ACID), yet it usually contains from 5 to 10 per cent. of tartrate of lime, while adulterants, properly speaking, may also be present. The tartrate of lime is derived from the clay added to purify it, and is more or less present in all commercial samples. In 1888, however, cream of tartar was offered in the market containing 99 per cent. of bitartrate of potash, so that it may be assumed that in future a purer article will be forthcoming. Cream of tartar is readily soluble in hot water, though it takes 60 parts of cold water to dissolve one part of it. Soluble cream of tartar is prepared by dissolving together 2 parts of Borax (q.v.) and 5 parts of cream of tartar, evaporating to dryness and powdering. Cream of tartar has an acid taste and gritty feel. When taken repeatedly in small doses of a scruple to a drachm, it acts as a refrigerant and diuretic; in doses of one to two drachms, it is useful as an aperient; and in larger doses of from two to three drachms it acts as a purging agent, accompanied by flatulence and griping. Imperial liquid is prepared by dissolving about a drachm of cream of tartar in a pint of boiling water, and adding a little lemon-peel and sugar to flavour it; when an agreeable refrigerant drink is obtained, which is highly serviceable in allaying thirst in feverish cases. Cream of tartar whey is obtained by adding two drachms of the salt to a pint of milk.

Crease, a Malay weapon. See KRIS. Creasote (Gr. kreas, 'flesh;' sōzō, I preserve') is an oily substance obtained from the tar produced by the destructive distillation of wood. When Coal tar (q.v.) is distilled, a certain portion called creasote oils passes over, and from this

much of the creasote of commerce is obtained.

This, although similar in some respects to wood creasote, is quite distinct chemically. The coal product consists largely of carbolic acid, along with creasol and xylenol, while the wood product, to which alone the name creasote rightly belongs, consists of guaiacol, creasol, and phlorol. As it contains several substances, so its boiling point ranges from 392° to 428° (200°-220° C.). The leading character of wood creasote is that it instantly coagulates albumen, but does not coagulate Collodion (q.v.), in this respect differing from carbolic acid. It has a very remarkable power of arresting the decay of meat or wood, and when meat is treated with so small a proportion as one-hundredth of its weight of creasote, and exposed to the air, it does not putrefy, but becomes hard and dry, assuming the taste and odour of smoked meat. Indeed, there can be no doubt that hams cured by means of wood smoke owe their preservation and flavour to some extent to the volatile creasote in the smoke. Railway sleepers and wood liable to be frequently wet are often saturated with the coal-tar creasote; or, where economy is not so essential, with the

CREATION

wood creasote, and are thereby preserved indefinitely. In toothache, where the cause of pain is a carious tooth with an exposed, inflamed nerve, a drop of creasote, carefully inserted, after previ ously cleansing the cavity, will often give relief. In this case it acts by coagulating the albumen Creasote acts powerand destroying the nerves. fully on the skin, producing a white stain when applied to it. A few drops added to a pint of ink preserve it from mouldiness. Medicinally, it is given in doses of one or two drops, and has been found efficacious where there is a tendency to fermentation of the contents of the stomach and bowels. Owing to its action on the skin it acts as The Creasote Plant (Larrea mexicana), growing an energetic poison when taken in large doses.abundantly on the borders of the Colorado Desert, emits a strong odour of creasote. The odour arises from an exudation similar to Indian gum-lac, and is caused by the punctures of an insect, Carteria Larroa.

Creasy, SIR EDWARD SHEPHERD, born at Bexley in Kent, in 1812, from Eton passed to King's College, Cambridge, in 1832, and in 1834 was elected a fellow. Called to the bar in 1837, he went on the home circuit for upwards of twenty years, and presided for three or four years as assistant-judge at the Westminster Sessions Court. In 1860 he was appointed chief-justice of Ceylon, and knighted. Ten years later he came home invalided on a year's leave of absence, after which he went out again, but was obliged to return home finally after struggling with his malady for two years more. He died at London, January 27, 1878. In 1840 he was appointed professor of History in University College. Creasy was the author of The Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World (1851), Invasions of England (1852), History of the Ottoman Turks (1854-56), &c.

Creatin, or KREATIN (Gr. kreas, 'flesh'), a constant and characteristic constituent of the striped muscle of vertebrates. It was discovered by Chevreul in 1835, but little was known about it till Liebig published his researches on the Chemistry of Food in 1847. Its chemical formula is C,H,NO2. Except in one doubtful case, it has always been found as above indicated; it is very uncertain if it ever occurs in unstriped muscles, and it has never been demonstrated in invertebrates. A dehydrated form, known as Creatinin, CH,N,O, occurs as a constant constituent of urine, and has also been demonstrated in fish muscles. Under the influence of acids, creatin becomes creatinin, and by hydration the transformation may be reversed. As these changes may readily occur during extraction, there is often doubt whether creatin or creatinin is present in a given case. See Appendix to Foster's Physiology; Krukenberg, Unters. Physiol. Inst. (vols. iii.-iv. 1880-81).

Creation. For the scientific discussion of the method by which creation has been effected, reference must be made to the articles DARWINIAN THEORY, EVOLUTION, MAN, SPECIES, &c. ; but it may be desirable to make a brief statement here regarding the controversy between Genesis and science. In reality, so far as modern scientific theology is concerned, this controversy is now prac tically at an end, so that only the briefest historical sketch will be necessary to show the nature of the problem and the steps by which the final conclusion has been reached.

To theology, Genesis had for centuries seemed to affirm that the world was created in six days by successive divine commands. To modern science, on the other hand, the rocks disclosed accumu lating evidence that the earth and its forms of life were not 'created' in this sense at all, but

« PrécédentContinuer »