victories gained by his fleet under Blake over the Spaniards brought him at once glory and treasure. His troops, with those of France, won the battle of the Dunes, and he obtained Dunkirk as his share of the spoil. He sedulously fostered British commerce, and by the hand of Blake chastised the pirate-states of Barbary. His boast that he would make the name of Englishman as respected as that of Roman had been, was, so long as he reigned, fulfilled; and his bitterest enemies could not deny the impression which he had made on the world, or the height to which he had raised his country. His court was simple and frugal, yet dignified; and though there was a strain of coarseness in his character (as illustrated in occasional horseplay), his bearing in public upheld the majesty of the Cromwell had always been a most loving husband and father, and the palace of the Protector was a virtuous English home. His speeches are very rough and unmethodical as compositions, but they are marked by sense, force, and intensity of purpose. He was fond of music, and not without regard for art. It seems that his government was striking root, since people of rank were beginning to ally themselves with it, and his heir succeeded without the slightest opposition. But disease and care, together with grief at the death of his favourite daughter, Lady Claypole, cut short his life. He died September 3, 1658, and the fabric of government which his mighty arm had sustained fell speedily to the ground.

state.

The records of Cromwell's life are very imperfect. Of his greatness as a soldier and statesman there can be no question, but it is difficult across two centuries and a half to see into his heart and pronounce how far ambition mingled with higher motives. That the religious enthusiasm which sent him out to expose his life in war at the age of forty-three was sincere cannot be doubted; but religious enthusiasm is often associated with fanaticism and self-deception. One who knew Cromwell well has described him as 'in body compact and strong, about five feet ten in height, with a head which you might see was a vast treasury of natural parts, with a temper exceeding fiery but under strong moral restraint, and compassionate even to an effeminate measure.' 'A larger soul, I think, hath seldom dweit in a house of clay than his was.' He was laid with great pomp in the tomb of the kings at Westminster, but after the Restoration his body was exposed on the gibbet at Tyburn and afterwards buried under it.

See Noble, Memoirs of the Protectoral House of Cromwell (1787); Cromwell, Life of O. Cromwell and his Sons (1820); Carlyle, Cromwell's Letters and Speeches (1846); Sanford, Studies of the Great Rebellion (1853); Goldwin Smith, Three English Statesmen (1867); Jas. Waylen, The House of Cromwell (1892); books on the Protector by F. Harrison (1888), R. F. D. Palgrave (1890), S. H. Church (1894), Horton (1897), S. R. Gardiner (1897 and 1899), Baldock (1899), and Paterson (1899); and works cited at CHARLES I. and II.

Cromwell, RICHARD, third son of Oliver, was born October 4, 1626. By the deaths of his two elder brothers, Robert and Oliver, he became his father's heir. He was an amiable and popular but weak man, devoted to field-sports and fond of pleasure. He lived for some time in comparative privacy, but when the Protector had been empowered to nominate his successor, Richard was brought to the front, and an effort was made to train him to the work of government, but in vain. Scarcely had he entered on his office, when the forces of anarchy, both parliamentary and military, broke loose, and he found himself utterly unable to restrain them. It was probably with little reluctance that he quitted Whitehall and retired into

private life. After the Restoration he lived for a time abroad under a feigned name; but he returned to England about 1680, and passed the remainder of his life at Cheshunt, where he died July 12, 1712, and was buried in the church at Hursley, Hampshire.

Cromwell, THOMAS (malleus monachorum, 'the hammer of the monks'), was born abont 1485, the son of a Putney blacksmith, clothshearer, brewer, and innkeeper. His youth was turbulent and adventurous. During eight or nine years passed on the Continent (1504-12), he seems to have served as a common soldier, to have been befriended at Florence by Frescobaldi the banker, to have acted as clerk at Antwerp and to a Venetian merchant, to have visited Rome, and to have traded on his own account at Middelburg. Anyhow, by 1513 he was back in England and married; there, step by step, he rose to wealth and importance as a wool-stapler and a scrivener, half usurer, half lawyer, having originally been bred to the law. Wolsey employed him as early as 1514; through Wolsey, probably, he got into parliament (1523); he was Wolsey's chief agent in the unpopular work of suppressing certain smaller monasteries for the endowment of his colleges at Ipswich and Oxford (1525); and finally he became his factotum and secretary. He stepped to greatness over his fallen master. Cavendish tells how on All-Hallows Day, 1529, he found Master Cromwell saying of Our Lady matins-which had been since a very strange sight in him'-and bewailing his own misadventure, but intending to ride from Esher to the court, where,' quoth he, I will either make or mar.' And Pole tells how, a few months earlier, Cromwell bade him take Machiavelli for his guide. Both stories illustrate the very man.

He was cheaply faithful to the cardinal, aiding him not only by quick-witted advice, and by pleading his cause in parliament, but even with £5 out of his own savings. Withal, he made himself friends of Wolsey's enemies; and his fidelity ingratiated him with Henry VIII. Him Cromwell promised to make the richest king ever in England, and counselled him to cut the knot of the divorce by declaring himself supreme head of the church. Counsel and promise were carried into effect by the Act of Supremacy (1534) and by the dissolution of the monasteries (1536-39). To abolish papal authority, break the power of the church, humble the nobility, and make the king absolute, were Cromwell's aims; in their accomplishment he stuck at nothing. At heart, it would seem, still a Catholic-for so late as 1535 he bequeathed £46 for a priest to sing mass for his soul-he yet did his utmost to Protestantise the English Church, whose 'polity,' in the words of Mr Froude, Cromwell's admirer, remains as it was left by its creator.' It is often hard to determine actions from those of Henry; both must be treated whether he was tool or instigator, to dissever his under Henry's reign. But here may be noticed his winning manners and ungraceful person, his venality and profusion, his purposeful ruthlessness and ubiquitous industry, his army of spies and vast correspondence-above all, the fact that that English Terror,' in which perished More and Fisher and hundreds of lowlier victims, set in with Cromwell's rise, and ebbed with Cromwell's fail. Among the posts and honours showered on him were those of privy-councillor (1531), chancellor of the exchequer (1533), secretary of state and master of the rolls (1534), vicar-general (1535), lord privy seal and Baron Cromwell of Oakham (1536), knight of the Garter and dean of Wells (1537), lord great chamberlain (1539), and finally, on 17th April 1540, Earl of Essex. He had,' says Professor Brewer, engrossed in his own hands powers such as no subject and no sovereign in this country had ever

CRONJE

possessed before or will ever possess again.' But the hand that had so exalted could equally abase him. The hatred all men bore him, the Catholic reaction, and Henry's aversion to Anne of Cleves, the coarse Lutheran consort of Cromwell's choosing, combined to effect his ruin: less than eight weeks after his elevation to the earldom he was arrested and lodged in the Tower. His abject entreaties for Mercy, mercy!' availed him nothing; as little did his filthy revelations of Henry's discourse with him touching Anne of Cleves. Condemned under a bill of attainder, his own favourite engine of tyranny, he was bunglingly beheaded on Tower Hill, 28th July 1540. See Mr Gairdner's article in the Dictionary of National Biography (vol. xiii. 1888); Dean Hook's Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury (vol. vi. chap. 1, 1868); Professor Brewer's article on The Royal Supremacy' in English Studies (1881); works cited under HENRY VIII.; and two articles in the Antiquarian Magazine for 1882 by Mr John Phillips of Putney.

Cronje, PIET, a Transvaal general, born in 1835, took a leading part in the wars with Britain in 1881 and in 1899-1900. After a skilful and determined resistance to Lord Methuen at Magersfontein, he surrendered with 4000 of his army to Lord Roberts on the Modder River on 27th February 1900. He was sent with other Boer prisoners to St Helena.

Cronstadt, a strongly fortified Russian seaport, 20 miles W. of St Petersburg, on a narrow island 7 miles long, at the mouth of the Neva. Cronstadt is at once the greatest naval station and the most flourishing commercial port of Russia. It was founded by Peter the Great in 1710, after taking the island from the Swedes (1703). Its fortifications command every approach to St Petersburg. They are all built of granite, and armed with the heaviest ordnance. The place, indeed, was considered by Sir Charles Napier, who reconnoitred it during the Russian war of 1854-55, so impregnable that it would have been utter madness to make any attempt upon it. Cronstadt, which is the seat of the Russian Admiralty, has three harbours the east, intended for vessels of war, and capable of accommodating thirty ships of the line; the middle harbour, where vessels are fitted up and repaired, and which is connected with the former by a broad canal; and the west or Merchant's Harbour, for the merchant-shipping, with capacity for 1000 vessels. Since 1884 St Petersburg is connected with Cronstadt by a ship-canal 200 feet wide and 22 feet deep. Cronstadt contains a cathedral, a statue of Peter the Great, and a British seamen's hospital (1867). In 1891 a 135-ton Krupp gun was put in position. Pop. 42,683.

:

Cronstadt, in Hungary. See KRONSTADT.
Cronus. See SATURN.

Crook, GEORGE, American soldier, born in Ohio in 1828, graduated at West Point in 1852, served in California till 1861, and was actively engaged throughout the civil war, in which he rose to the rank of major-general. He served against the Indians in Idaho (1866-72), in Arizona (1872-75), and crushed the great rising in Wyoming and Montana in 1875-77. In 1882 he returned to Arizona, where he controlled the Indians on the southern frontier, and induced them to take up farms and become peaceable. Died March 21, 1890. Crooked Island. See BAHAMAS.

Crookes, SIR WILLIAM, a great physicist and chemist, born in London in 1832, was a pupil and assistant of Hofmann at the Royal College of Chemistry, next superintended the meteorological department of the Radcliffe Observatory, and lectured on chemistry at the Science College,

Chester. In 1859 he founded the Chemical News, and in 1864 became also editor of the Quarterly Journal of Science. He was elected F.R.S. in 1863, vice-president of the Chemical Society in 1876, member of council of the Royal Society the year after, and in 1880 was awarded by the French Académie des Sciences an extraordinary prize of 3000 francs and a gold medal. He is an authority of the first rank on sanitary questions, especially the disposal of the sewage of towns, and his method of producing extreme vacua gave a great impulse to incandescent electric lighting. His original researches in chemistry and physics led to the discovery of the metal thallium in 1861, of the sodium amalgamation process for separating gold and silver from their ores in 1865, and of important discoveries in molecular physics and radiant matter, besides the invention of the Radiometer (q.v.). He is the author of Select Methods of Chemical Analysis (1871), and of works on beetroot sugar manufacture, dyeing, calico-printing, and sewage, and has translated books on chemistry and metallurgy. Crookes Tubes' are Vacuum Tubes (q.v.); and see RÖNTGEN, GAS. For Crookes's spiritualistic views, see SPIRITUALISM. Crookes was made a K.C. B. in 1897, and was President of the British Association in 1898.

Crookhaven, a fishing village of County Cork, 30 miles SW. of Skibbereen, on a fine bay. Cropredy Bridge, near Banbury, gives name to a royalist success (29th June 1644).

Croquet, an open-air game, in which two or more players endeavour to drive wooden balls, by means of long-handled mallets, through a series of arches set in the ground according to some pattern. The object of each player is to make the complete circle of six to ten hoops or arches; but during the course of the game he may have the progress of his ball retarded by his opponents, or assisted by his partners; and these friendly aids and hostile attacks constitute the chief interest of croquet. The game seems to be substantially a revival of the old game of Pall Mall, which gave its name to what is now the well-known London street, and to other places in England. Pall Mall, played with ball (Ital. palla) and mailet (Ital. maglia), came from France into England early in the 17th century, and died out in the 18th. Croquet (Fr. croquer, to crack') became a popular game about 1850, was the great summer social game during 1860-70, but was after about 1875 superseded by lawn-tennis, to revive about 1897. A croquet-ground should be a well-rolled level grass plat or lawn, not less than 30 yards long by 20 yards wide; a full-sized croquet-ground measures 40 yards by 30 yards.

mounted by a cross, and borne by or Crosier, a staff 5 feet long, surbefore an archbishop on solemn occasions. It is generally hollow, gilt, and richly ornamented. The crosier differs entirely from the Pastoral Staff (q.v.), with which it is often nevertheless confounded-the latter having a circular head, in the form of a crook. The illus tration is of Archbishop Warham's crosier, from Canterbury Cathedral.

Crosier,

Cross. The cross was a common instrument of capital punishment among the ancients; and the death of the cross was esteemed so dishonourable that only slaves and

feelings. As these structures were incorporated with or surmounted by a crucifix, the term cross was so indelibly associated with them that it survived the religious character of the fabrics. The earliest examples of this kind consisted, probably, of tall crucifixes of wood, such as are still seen by the waysides in some continental countries. Afterwards, stone shafts would be substituted; and according to the increase of market revenues, or progress of taste, these town-crosses assumed that imposing character which they latterly possessed. The crosses at Cheddar in Somersetshire and at Malmesbury in Wiltshire, are open vaulted structures, with a commodious space beneath as a refuge for market-folks during rain, and surmounted with a kind of Gothic turret. At Chichester, Bristol, and Winchester, the marketcrosses, while similar in form, are of a higher architectural quality. Adjoining St Paul's in London stood Paul's Cross, a structure which we read of as early as 1259, in the reign of Henry III. At this preaching-cross, by order of Henry VIII., preachers delivered sermons in favour of the Reformation, and here Queen Elizabeth attended to hear a thanksgiving sermon for the defeat of the Spanish Armada; but in 1643 the cross incurred the displeasure of the Puritans, and was demolished by order of parliament. See The Ancient Stone Crosses of England, by Alfred Rimmer (1875).

Scotland offers no specimens of memorial or Norman crosses, unless it be the modern Scott Monument, at Edinburgh, which is essentially a Norman cross of a gigantic order. The simpler

kind of Scottish market-cross consisted of a shaft of stone, standing on a flight of circular or octangular steps-the grander market-cross consisted of a tall stone shaft, on an imposing circular, hexagonal, or octagonal substructure, 10 to 16 feet high. The top formed a platform, which was surrounded with an ornamented stone parapet, and was reached by a stair inside. Losing their religious character, the Scottish market

crosses were em

ployed for royal and civic proclamations, and as places where certain judicial writs were executed. The oldest cross of Edinburgh stood in the centre of the High Street, but was removed in 1617. A new market-cross was then erected farther down the street, on the south side, which consisted of an octangular base, with a stone shaft of about 20 feet in height; its removal in 1756, by the civic authorities, is indignantly referred to by Scott in Marmion. The shaft, which had been preserved, was re-erected on a similar substructure near the same site in 1885, at the expense of Mr Gladstone.

Edinburgh Market-cross, 1617-1886.

CROSS, in Heraldry, is one of the ordinaries, and is represented with four equal arms, and considered to occupy one-fifth of the field if not charged, and one-third if charged. Argent, a cross gules, is the cross of St George. Like

CROSSBILL

names.

other ordinaries, the cross may be engrailed, invecked, &c. When its central square is removed, it is said to be quarter-pierced; and when it does not extend to the margin of the shield, it is called humettée. But the cross of heraldry is often found varied in other ways, the varieties having each separate Thirty-nine varieties are enumer ated by Guillim, and 109 by Edmonson. Those most frequently occurring are here mentioned; and it may be remarked that they St George's Cross. have rather the character of common charges than ordinaries not extending to the margin of the shield, and being often borne in numbers as well as singly. The cross moline (fig. 1) has the ends turned round both ways; the cross fleury (fig. 2) has each end terminating in a

fleur-de-lis; the cross botonnée (fig. 3) has each end terminating in a trefoil; the cross patonce (fig. 4) has three points to each limb; the cross patée (fig. 5) is small in the centre, but widens towards the ends; the cross crosslet (fig. 6) is crossed at each end; and the cross potent (fig. 7) is crutch-shaped at each end. The Maltese cross (fig. 8), which converges to a point in the centre, and has two points to each limb, though not frequent as a heraldic charge, derives importance from being the badge of the Knights of Malta and other orders. Any of these crosses is said to be fitchée when the lower limb terminates in a point, as in fig. 9, representing a cross patée fitchée.

Besides

these and other crosses with equal limbs, there is the cross Calvary (fig. 10), being the cross of crucifixion elevated on three steps, and the patriarchal cross (fig. 11) with two horizontal bars.

Cross, MARY ANN. See ELIOT, GEORGE. Cross, SOUTHERN. See,SOUTHERN CROSS. Cross Bill, a bill of exchange or promissory note given in consideration of another bill or note.

Crossbill (Loxia), a Passerine bird in the finch family (Fringillida), well known for the curious way in which the points of the upper and lower bill-halves cross one another. There seems to be no constancy in the direction of crossing, for in different individuals, even of the same species, the upper and lower portions are found variously directed to right or left. This peculiarity is prob ably for the most part a directly mechanical adaptation to the food-habit of the bird, which consists in tearing up the cones of firs and pines for the sake of the seeds. Bringing the two points together, the crossbill inserts its beak into the cone, then opens it with a strong lateral movement, and with its scoop-like tongue detaches and