and in order to proceed as much as possible from the known to the unknown, we begin by classifying their idioms. These, whether dead or still spoken, belong to the Aryan or Indo-European family of languages, and those of them spoken in modern times divide themselves into two groups-viz. Goidelic and Brythonic. (1) The Goidelic group embraces the dialects termed Gaelic, that is to say, Irish Gaelic, or Irish as it is now more frequently and briefly called; Manx Gaelic, or the Gaelic dialect not yet extinct in the Isle of Man; and Scotch Gaelic, or the Gaelic spoken in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland. In ordinary Scotch and English parlance this is what is understood by the word Gaelic when it is used without any qualification. In order to resist one of the delusions to which charlatans are always leading the unwary, it is right to say that the words Gael and Gaelic have nothing to do with Galli. Gael is the simplified English spelling of a word which is now written in Scotch and Irish Gaelic Gaidheal, with an evanescent dh; but the most ancient form known of it was Goidel, whence the adjective Goidelic, which has been resorted to by Celtic scholars as applicable equally to all three Gaelic subdivisions of the Celtic group here in question. The Celtic languages of this group are sometimes also called Erse, which is a term derived from the Scotch form of the adjective Irish; this was Ersch or Yrisch, the longer and shorter forms of which appear, used without any distinction, by Kennedy in his answer to the poet Dunbar, when the latter had called Kennedy an Ersch brybour baird' and an Ersch katherane,' in reference to his alleged extraction from the Irish Scots of Galloway and Carrick. Kennedy's reply contains the following line (see Murray's Dialect of the Southern Counties of Scotland, 1873, pp. 43-44):

Thou luvis nane Erische, elf, I undirstand, and he goes on to add

Thy fore fader maid Ersche and Erschmen thin. (2) The Brythonic group embraces the following languages: Welsh, Breton, and Cornish, which has been extinct now for about a century. Two of these belong to Great Britain, and one, the Breton or Armoric, to Little Britain on the other side of the English Channel. These three might be collectively termed British or Britannic, but that both these adjectives have connotations which would be misleading, as they tend to confusion; so here, also, a neutral form, Brythonic, is used, which is derived from Brython, one of the Welsh words for the Welsh and the so-called Ancient Britons, whence their language is sometimes called Brythoneg in Welsh. This last was in Cornish Brethonec, and in Breton Brézonek, meaning respectively the Celtic of Cornwall and of Brittany. Brython or Britto was the national name of all peoples of this branch, just as Goidel or Gael may be treated as the national name of the other branch.

All this applies only to the neo-Celtic nations, or those among whom Celtic languages are or have been in use in modern times, and a question of much greater difficulty presents itself when one attempts to classify likewise the continental Celts of ancient history. The reason for this is chiefly the fact that the linguistic data become more precarious as one goes back. Thus, for example, the language of the ruling people of ancient Gaul has been left us only in a very few inscriptions, so that our knowledge of it from that source has to be complemented by the study of Gaulish proper names, of which a considerable number is extant in Latin inscriptions and in the writings of Roman and Greek authors. Now, when we apply the

57

test of some of the most palpable differences that are known to exist between the Goidelic and the Brythonic idioms to the remains of the Gaulish language, we find at once that it is to be ranked with the Brythonic dialects, and not with the Goidelic ones, and our Brythonic group becomes what may be more exactly described as a GalloBrythonic one. This further suggests the question whether there was no continental Celtic idiom which partook of the characteristics of the Goidelic branch. The probability is that there was; for one finds Sulpicius Severus, an ecclesiastical writer of the 4th century, distinguishing between Celtic and Gallic or Gaulish, as if both were spoken in his time. (See Dialogue i. 26, in Migne's Patr. Lat. vol. xx. col. 201: Tu vero, inquit Postumianus, vel Celtice, aut, si mavis, Gallice loquere, dummodo jam Martinum loquaris.') And the use of the two names Celta and Galli would seem to point to the same inference-viz. the exist ence in Gaul of two Celtic peoples, the one, probably, superimposed on the other, as on a vanquished population, or driving it towards the south and west. Thus, if the Celtic language which Sulpicius Severus distinguished from Gaulish should be ranked with the Goidelic dialects, we should have alongside of a Gallo-Brythonic group another which might be called Celto-Brythonic were it not inconvenient to use the words Celt and Celtic in two senses. For while the modern usage applies them indifferently to the whole family, Sulpicius indicates a narrower sense; and so, in fact, had Cæsar done centuries before, when he wrote that one of the three peoples of Gaul was called Celta in their own tongue. He states that these Celtæ proper, so to say, were separated by the Garonne from the Aquitani, and by the Seine and the Marne from the Belgæ. In other words, their country extended from the Garonne to the Seine and Marne, and other Roman writers give it the name of Celtica; and Dionysius of Halicarnassus had heard of a river Celtus, from which Celtica was supposed to derive its name. From this narrower Celtica, in the sense which Roman writers gave it, one might form the adjective Celtican, to apply to its people, in order to avoid the confusion which must arise from calling them Celts, whilst using that word also of the whole family.

In order to show the philological reasons for this classification, it would be necessary to go into a variety of details; but let one of these suffice for the present. The Gallo-Brythonic dialects used p where the others would have qu. Take, for example, the early inscriptional Irish for the genitive of the word for 'son'; it was maqvi, corresponding to a nominative which appears as mace or mac in the oldest manuscript Irish; and mac is still the word for boy' or son' in all the Goidelic dialects. Now the early Brythonic form of this genitive would have been mapi, while in the oldest manuscript Welsh we have map, and in later Welsh mûb, 'boy' or 'son.' From this word was formed another, mabon, a 'boy' or 'youth;' and this in its old form appears in Latin inscriptions as maponus in Roman inscriptions found in Britain in honour of the Celtic god Apollo Maponus, so called in reference to his youthfulness. Now from Gaul we have such names as Eporedorix, Parisii, Petrocorii, and many others, with the consonant p; but every now and then we have also names with qu, such as Sequana and Aquitani, together with several instances from Spain, where a people of the same Celtic branch as those of Celtica had also probably established themselves.

So far, then, as one can get philological data to reason upon, it would seem that the west of Europe had in early times been subjected to two Celtic

invasions; the one is represented by the Celts whose position, geographically speaking, is the farthest from the home of the Aryans. These would be the Celticans of Gaul and Spain, as compared with the Gallic tribes to the east of them towards the Rhine and the Alps; the same relative position is also taken up by the Goidelic Celts of the British Islands, occupying, as we find them doing, the Isle of Man, Ireland, and the Scotch Highlands and Islands. The other, here represented by the Brythons, must have come later and driven out the Goidels, or subdued them, in the rest of this island. This may be supposed, also, to have been the case on the Continent, so that we have to regard the later comers, the Galli, as invaders and conquerors forming another Celtic population. In the eastern portions of Gaul they may have formed the bulk of the population, but in the rest of that country they probably only constituted a ruling class of comparatively small importance in point of numbers. Such a state of things would adequately explain the great dearth of linguistic remains belonging to the older and subjugated people. Roman authors and other strangers would naturally speak most of the ruling classes, and information about the others must reach strangers through the medium of the Gallic rulers and their language, at anyrate, so far as concerns the time before Latin became the official tongue of all Gaul. A somewhat similar conclusion has been arrived at by studying the burials and megalithic monuments of France and the neighbouring lands to the east of it. In Central and Western France menhirs, dolmens, and cromlechs prevail, while the eastern side of France shows the prevalence of mounds and barrows, which are here and there found penetrating into the other domain, giving us a sort of rude sketch, as it were, of an invasion advancing irregularly towards the west. See M. Bertrand's Archéologie Celtique et Gauloise; also K. von Becker's Versuch einer Lösung der Celtenfrage (1883), pp. 114–119.

For reasons already indicated, the question of Celtic ethnology is a very difficult one, but it is considerably more difficult than would appear from what has here been mentioned; for besides two Celtic sets of invaders, there are also to be taken into account the non-Aryan races that previously occupied the countries to which the Celts came. These pre-Celtic populations probably survived in considerable numbers, and one of the effects of a second Celtic invasion may be supposed to have been to force the earlier Celtic settlers to amalgamate with the ancient inhabitants, and to make common cause with them against the later Aryan hordes. So it may be expected that the language of the Goidelic Celts will prove to have absorbed a larger non-Aryan element than that of the Brythons. Similarly, one might take for granted that the physical type of the people speaking the Goidelic dialects should prove less purely Aryan; but this feature is obscured by the fact of the counter-invasions which Wales and other western portions of Britain have undergone in historical times at the hands of Ireland. Lastly, it is right to add that in so far as the people, whose language is or has been Celtic, are Aryans, one might expect the type to be that of tall men, with more or less light hair and blue eyes; on the other hand, the smaller men, with dark hair and black eyes, which it was the fashion till lately to regard as the genuine and typical Celts, are probably not to be regarded as Celts at all, but as Ivernians or representatives of the pre-Celtic and non-Aryan race, whose hunting-ground the soil of the British Islands may be said to have been long before the first Aryan set foot in them.

The Celtic languages and literatures will be found

CEMENTS

under BRITTANY, CORNWALL, GAELIC, IRELAND, WALES. See also ARYAN RACE AND LANGUAGES, ETHNOLOGY, PHILOLOGY, DRUIDISM.

Besides the works already mentioned, the following should be consulted: Müllenhoff's Deutsche Altertumskunde (Berlin, 1887); Windisch's article 'Keltische Sprachen' in the Allgemeine Encyklopædie der Wissenschaften und Künste, together with the reviews on the same in the Revue Celtique, vol. vi. pp. 395-400; Hübner's Inscriptiones Britannia Christiana (Berlin, 1876); Brambach's Corpus Inscrip. Rhenanarum; and the volumes of the Corpus Inscrip. Latinarum, published by the Berlin Academy, especially those for Britain (vii.), Spain (ii.), Gallia Narbonensis (xii.), Gallia Cisalpina (v.), and Illyricum (iii.).

Cements. These may be roughly divided into three classes: (1) The stone cements, including Roman and Portland cements, and ordinary mortar, which are used in thickish layers for uniting stone and brick work, and for protective coverings to buildings; (2) substances which form binding joints of much less but still appreciable thickness, such as white lead, red lead, and putty; and (3) cements which require to be used in extremely thin coatings, such as glue, isinglass, and dissolved caoutchouc.

Ordinary Mortar is a mixture of slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) and sand, made into a paste with water. Generally one part of lime to three or four parts of sand are used, but the proportions vary according to the purity of the lime employed. Very pure or fat lime, such as that made by burning white chalk or white marble does not make so good a mortar as lime obtained from less pure limestones, which are by far the most abundant. The more thoroughly the ingredients are intermixed, the more complete will be the subsequent hardening of the mortar. As commonly laid in the joints of brick or stone work, mortar sets sufficiently fast to allow building operations to proceed from day to day with occasional longer intervals, but it takes years-perhaps in many cases cen. turies to reach its maximum hardness. setting and subsequent slow hardening of mortar are usually considered to be due, in the first instance, simply to the loss of water, and afterwards to the absorption by the lime of carbonic acid from the atmosphere, the carbonate of lime thus formed binding together the sand and stone. It is doubtful, however, if this is an altogether satisfactory explanation. The mortar used in many medieval buildings is largely mixed with small pebbles. In a number of cases this has proved to be of a more durable nature than the stone used along with it.

The

Puzzolana or Pozzuolana, a loosely coherent volcanic sand found at Pozzuoli, near Naples, has been long celebrated for its property of forming a hydraulic cement when mixed with ordinary lime. It is composed of silica, with a little magnesia and potash or soda, alumina, lime, and oxide of iron.

Roman Cement.-Certain natural mixtures of lime and clay are called cement-stones. The clays of some of the newer geological formations in the south of England, for example, contain courses of septarian nodules (see SEPTARIA), which have been in great request for making the best kinds of Roman cement. They are concretions of impure calcareous matter, many of them having this analysis: Carbonate of lime, 66; silica, 18; alumina, 7; and protoxide of iron, 6; or consist of these substances in nearly that proportion. Cement-stones are carefully calcined in kilns, and afterwards ground and sifted. Good Roman cement should set in about 15 minutes, and this quick-setting property makes it valuable for work which requires to be executed between tides and for other purposes where the cement used must harden quickly. It is at best of but medium strength. Some natural

White and Red Lead Cements.-Either white lead or red lead by itself, or a mixture of both, is much in request as a cement for the joints of slate or glass cisterns, such as aquariums. These are also employed for the joints of gas-pipes, for cementing metal mounts to glass tubes, and other chemical and electrical purposes. White and red lead cements are made up with boiled linseed oil, and sometimes gold size is added. Mixed white and red lead make a very hard and firm cement. cement of these two substances and ground plumbago in equal parts, mixed with oil, is said to stand a great heat in steam-joints.

A

Shell-lac Cements.-An excellent cement is made by digesting 4 oz. of the finest shell-lac in 3 oz. of methylated spirit in a warm place. It should be made into a consistency like thick syrup. This makes a firm cement for mending pieces of glass, china, ornamental stones, and ivory. It is not soluble in water. A cheaper, but still very serviceable cement can be formed by dissolving shell-lac in wood naphtha. For some purposes shell-lac itself is used as cement by simply melting it. Marine Glue is a mixture of shell-lac in a solution of india-rubber. It is made into thin sheets, and melted when required for use in shipbuilding, &c. Gelatin and Isinglass Cements.-Fish-glue, gelatin, or Isinglass (q.v.), made up with dilute acetic acid and other bodies into a jelly or thick liquid, produces a cement slightly varying in its nature, for mending china, glass, ivory, bone, and other substances. Foulke's cement and liquid fish-glue are cements of this class. These can be obtained in a convenient form for use in hardware or druggists' shops. They are more or less soluble in water, so that articles mended with them must be quickly washed. Cement of mixed glue and glycerine, sometimes with tannin added, is occasionally used for leather and cloth.

Armenian or Diamond Cement.-The following is the reputed formula for preparing the cement used by the Armenian jewellers for attaching diamonds, &c., without any metallic setting: 'Dissolve five or six bits of gum-mastic, each the size of a large pea, in as much rectified spirit of wine as will suffice to render it liquid; and in another vessel dissolve as much isinglass, previously a little softened in water-though none of the water must be used-in French brandy, or good rum, as will make a 2-ounce phial of very strong glue, adding two very small bits of galbanum or ammoniacum, which must be rubbed or ground till they are dissolved. Then mix the whole with a sufficient heat. Keep the glue in a phial closely stopped, and when it is to be used, set the phial in boiling water.'

Elastic Cements.-One part of caoutchouc dissolved in 3 parts of chloroform; also, 5 parts of caoutchouc in 3 parts of chloroform, with I part of powdered gum-mastic added. Benzole is sometimes used instead of chloroform as the solvent. Another elastic cement can be made by a mixture of guttapercha and caoutchouc dissolved in bisulphide of carbon. The solvents of these cements must not be exposed to any but a gentle heat.

Resin Cements.-There are a great number of cements partly formed of ordinary resin. One kind consists of resin 4, beeswax 1, and whiting 1 part. The proportions of these ingredients in the same order for another are 15, 1, and 4. Another is made from resin 4, and plaster of Paris 1 part. These cements are used to fix pieces of stone, glass, &c. to handles when grinding them. Resin, pitch, beeswax, and plaster of Paris or brick-dust are made up in various proportions into

cements.

Cutlers' Cement, used for fixing knives and forks

CEMETERY

in handles, is made of equal weights of resin and brick-dust melted together; or, for a superior quality, 4 parts of resin, 1 of beeswax, and 1 of brick-dust.

Copal varnish, mastic varnish, Canada balsam, and gold size are each useful occasionally for cementing substances like two pieces of glass together."

Cement-stone, a somewhat argillaceous and ferruginous limestone, generally compact, which is occasionally employed for making hydraulic mortar or cement. The Cement-stone Series is the name of a group of strata occurring in the Carboniferous System of Scotland. See CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM. Cemetery (from the Greek koimētērion, literally a sleeping-place) may mean any graveyard, or other place of deposit for the dead; but it has lately acquired a special meaning, applicable to those extensive ornamental burial-grounds which have recently come into use as the practice of burying within and around churches was gradually abandoned (see BURIAL). The fine burial-grounds of the Turks, extending over large tracts adorned by cedars and other trees, may have suggested the plan to western Europeans. Those round Constantinople are famous, and are dense forests of cypresses. A Moslem grave is never reopened, and a cypress is usually planted after every interment. Of western cities, Paris took the lead in this respect, and in Britain there are now no considerable towns near which there is not at least one cemetery, and the legislation mentioned under the head of BURIAL has rendered their establishment, to a certain extent, a legal necessity. There was at first a natural feeling of regret at the prospect of deserting places of deposit for the dead so hallowed by ancient use and recent associations as the church and the churchyard. On the other hand, the new places of interment began to become attractive in virtue of their trees and flowers, natural scenery, and works of monumental art. The new cemeteries are in many instances cheerful open places, and in them the place of rest for the dead has rather tended to improve than to undermine the health of the living. One of the first and most celebrated of modern European cemeteries is that of Père la Chaise (q.v.), near Paris, the arrangements of which have been generally followed in the cemeteries of London and other English cities. It was laid out in 1804, and is now within the enceinte of the city. The Campo Santo of Pisa (1228-83), the pantheon of the Pisans, has been the model of many Italian cemeteries. It is an oblong court, surrounded by lofty arcades of marble, and adorned with famous frescoes and works of art. In the centre is a mass of earth brought from the Holy Land. The Genoese Campo Santo contains an enormous wealth of sculpture. One Neapolitan cemetery (the Campo Santo Vecchio) differs widely from most others. It contains 366 deep pits, one of which is opened each day, and in it all the interments of the day take place. night a funeral service is performed, and the pit is filled with earth and lime, not to be reopened till the year after. The Sicilian catacombs are also a kind of cemetery. Kensal Green Cemetery dates from 1832; other well-known London cemeteries are those of Highgate and Woking (1855), near Guildford, 7000 acres in area, with a crematory. The Dean Cemetery at Edinburgh, and the Necropolis of Glasgow, are notable; that of Glasnevin, outside of Dublin, is the most celebrated in Ireland. English cemeteries are usually divided into two portions-one consecrated for the burials of members of the Estab lished Church, over whose remains the funeral service is read, and one unconsecrated, for the

At

CENCI

burials of dissenters. In the United States great pains are bestowed on the adornment of cemeteries. The most famous are Mount Auburn, near Boston, Greenwood in Brooklyn, and Laurel Hill, near Philadelphia. See BURIAL.

Cenci, BEATRICE, 'the beautiful parricide,' was the daughter of Francesco Cenci, a Roman nobleman of colossal wealth. According to Muratori (Annales, lib. x.), Francesco was twice married, Beatrice being the youngest of twelve children by the first wife. After his second marriage, he treated the children of his first wife in a revolting manner, and was even accused of hiring bandits to murder two of his sons on their return from Spain. The beauty of Beatrice inspired him with the horrible and incestuous desire to possess her person; with mingled lust and hate he persecuted her from day to day, until circumstances enabled him to consummate his brutality. The unfortunate girl besought the help of her relatives, and of Pope Clement VII. (Aldobrandini), but did not receive it; whereupon, in company with her step-mother and her brother, Giacomo, she planned the murder of her unnatural parent, into whose brain two hired assassins drove a large nail (9th September 1598). The crime was discovered, and both she and Giacomo were put to the torture; Giacomo confessed, but Beatrice persisted in the declaration that she was innocent. All, however, were condemned and beheaded (10th September 1599). Such is Muratori's narrative. Others allege that Beatrice was the innocent victim of an infernal plot. The results, however, of Bertolotti's investigations (Francesco Cenci e la sua Famiglia, 1877), based on original documents and contemporary notices, go far to deprive the story of the Cenci tragedy of the romantic elements on which Shelley's powerful tragedy mainly turns. Francesco, it would appear, was profligate, but no monster: Beatrice at the time she murdered her father was not sixteen, but twenty-one years of age, was far from beautiful, and was probably the mother of an illegitimate son. And Bertolotti further shows that the sweet and mournful countenance which forms one of the treasures of the Barberini Palace in Rome cannot possibly be a portrait of Beatrice by Guido, who never painted in Rome till some nine years after Beatrice's death. See an article in the Edinburgh Review for January 1879.

Cenis. See MONT CENIS.

Cenobites. See MONACHISM.

Cenomanian, the name given by French geologists to the Lower Chalk and Upper Greensand of English geologists.

Cenotaph (Gr. kenotafion; kenos, empty, and tafos, a tomb'), a monument which does not contain the remains of the deceased. They were originally erected for those whose bones could not be found, as for those who had perished at sea. Latterly the name was applied to tombs built by a man during his lifetime for himself and the members of his family. The memorials in Westminster Abbey to Franklin and Gordon are cenotaphs.

Censer (Fr. encensoir, from Lat. incendo, I burn), a vase, or other sacred vessel, used for burning Incense (q.v.). Censers were used in the Hebrew service of the temple. The ordinary censer, called also a thurible (Lat. thuribulum, from thus, frankincense'), used in Catholic services, is a metallic vessel for holding burning charcoal, of brass or latten, silver, silver-plated, or even of gold. It is shaped like a vase or cup, has a movable cover, usually perforated, and is suspended by chains (generally four in number) so as to be swung to and fro for the readier dispersion

of the smoke of the incense, which is thrown upon the live charcoal.

Censors, the name of two Roman officers of state of high dignity, whose duties related to the official registration of the citizens (census), the superintendence of public morals (regimen morum), and arrangements for the collection of the public revenue and the execution of public works. They were elected in the comitia centuriata, presided over by a consul. The term of office at first lasted five years, but was shortly afterwards limited to eighteen months. The censorship was regarded as the highest dignity in the state, except the dictatorship. It was a sacred and irresponsible magis. tracy, whose powers were vast and undefined, and whose decisions were received with solemn reverence. The census or registration was taken in the Campus Martius, in a building called Villa Publica. It was a complete catalogue of the citizens of Rome, stating in detail the age of each, the amount of his property, and the number of his children. Next the censors drew up a list of the equites, entitled to have a horse at the public expense, and made up the roll of senators, supplying the vacancies. The regimen morum was the most dreaded and absolute of their powers. It grew naturally out of the exercise of the previous duty, which compelled them to exclude unworthy persons from the lists of citizens. Gradually the superintendence of the censor extended from the public to the private life of citizens. They could inflict disgrace (ignominia) on any one whose conduct did not square with their notions of rectitude or duty. For instance, if a man neglected the cultivation of his fields, or carried on a disreputable trade, or refused to marry, or treated his family either too kindly or too harshly, or was extravagant, or guilty of bribery, cowardice, &c., he might be degraded, according to his rank, or otherwise punished. The administration of the finances of the state included the regulation of the tributum or property-tax; of the vectigalia, such as the tithes paid for the public lands, salt-works, mines, customs, &c., which were usually leased out to speculators for five years; the preparation of the state budget, &c. The office of censor continued to be filled by patricians till 351 B.C., when Censor Marcius Rutilus, a plebeian, was elected. Twelve years later it was enacted that one of the censors (there were always two) must be a plebeian. In 131 B.C. both censors for the first time were plebeians.

Censorship of Press. See PRESS.

In

Census means the counting of the people. The word is a Latin one, and was applied to the functions which the Roman Censors (q.v.) performed of periodically enumerating the people, but no records of these enumerations remain, and indeed we have but a few scattered notices of them. Greece a census was established by Solon at Athens for the double purpose of facilitating taxation and classifying the citizens. Religious prejudice prevented any censuses being taken during the middle ages, and it was not till the 18th century that the necessity for obtaining correct informa tion as to the population of European countries overcame this feeling. The first country to undertake a census on a scientific basis was Sweden in 1749; in France an enumeration was made in 1700, but the first reliable was not taken till 1801. In America the first census was taken in 1790, and in England in 1801. Censuses are now taken in Austria, Belgium, Italy, Norway and Sweden, Russia, Switzerland, the United States of America, India, and most of the British colonies, every ten years; in France and Germany every five years; in Spain at irreg.