CHALMERS

the alarming evil. It seemed to him that the only means by which this could be accomplished was by 'revivifying, remodelling, and extending the old parochial economy of Scotland,' which had proved so fruitful of good in the rural parishes. In order to wrestle more closely with the ignorance and vice of Glasgow, Chalmers in 1819 became minister of St John's parish, of whose 2000 families, mostly workpeople, more than 800 had no connection with any Christian church. Chalmers broke up his parish into 25 districts, each of which he placed under separate management, and established two day schools, and between 40 and 50 local Sabbath schools, for the instruction of the children of the poorer and neglected classes,' more than 1000 of whom attended. In many other ways he sought to elevate and purify the lives of his parishioners. While in Glasgow, Chalmers had matured his opinions relative to the best method of providing for the poor. He disliked the English system of a compulsory assessment,' and preferred the old Scotch method of voluntary contributions at the church-door, administered by elders. The management of the poor in the parish of St John's was intrusted to his care by the authorities as an experiment, and in four years he reduced the pauper expenditure from £1400 to £280 per annum. Edward Irving was for two years his assistant. But such herculean toils began to undermine his constitution, and in 1823 he accepted the offer of the Moral Philosophy chair in St Andrews, where he wrote his treatise on the Use and Abuse of Literary and Ecclesiastical Endowments (1827). In the following year he was transferred to the chair of Theology in Edinburgh, and in 1832 he published a work on political economy. In 1833 appeared his Bridge. water treatise, On the Adaptation of External Nature to the Moral and Intellectual Constitution of Man. It was received with great favour, and obtained for the author many literary honours; in 1834 he was elected by the Royal Society of Edinburgh first a fellow and then a vice-president, and by the French Institute a corresponding member, while in 1835 the university of Oxford conferred on him the degree of D.C.L. In 1834 he was appointed convener of the Church-extension Committee; and after seven years of enthusiastic labour, he announced that upwards of £300,000 had been collected from the nation, and 220 new churches built. Meanwhile, however, troubles were springing up in the bosom of the church itself. The Evangelical party had become predominant in the General Assembly; the struggles in regard to patronage between them and the Moderate' or Erastian' party became keener and more frequent, until the decision of the civil courts in the famous Auchterarder and Strathbogie cases brought matters to a crisis; and on the 18th of May 1843 Chalmers, followed by 470 clergymen, left the church of his fathers, rather than sacrifice those principles which he believed essential to the purity, honour, and independence of the church (see FREE CHURCH). The rapid formation and organisation of the Free Church were greatly owing to his indefatigable exertions. Chalmers was elected principal of the Free Church College, and spent the close of his life in the zealous performance of his duties there, and in completing his Institutes of Theology. He died suddenly at Morningside, Edinburgh, May 30, 1847.

The works of Chalmers extend to 34 vols. (9 of which include his posthumous works). They contain valuable and, in some cases, original contributions to the sciences of natural theology, Christian apologetics, and social economy; while on minor topics, such as the church-establishment question, they exhibit both novelty and ingenuity

of argument. As a religious orator Chalmers was unique and unrivalled. There have been few men in whom such gifts of intellect, feeling, and imagination were so harmoniously combined with the shrewdest common-sense and the highest administrative ability. Never did Scotland produce a greater or more lovable soul, one more gentle, guileless, and genial-hearted, or yet more fervid from the strength of a resolute will, before whose impetus difficulties were dashed aside as by a torrent. There have been loftier and more purely original minds in Scotland than Chalmers's, but there has never been a truer one, nor a heart whose Christian faith and piety were more intense, sincere, and humane.

See his Memoirs, by his son-in-law, Dr W. Hanna (4 vols. 1849-52), and his Correspondence (1853); also A Biographical Notice by Dean Ramsay (1850), an Essay by Dr John Brown in his Hora Subsecive, and small books on him by D. Fraser (1881) and Mrs Oliphant (1893).

Châlons-sur-Marne, the capital of the French department of Marne, on the right bank of the river Marne, 107 miles E. of Paris by rail. An old place, with timber houses and many spired churches, it has an interesting cathedral, dating chiefly from the 13th century, a handsome hôtelde-ville (1772), and a fine public park, though the Germans cut down its immemorial elms for fuel. It still does a considerable trade in Champagne wine; but its manufacture of the worsted cloth known as 'shalloon' (Chaucer's chalons) is a thing of the past, and the population has dwindled from 60,000 in the 13th century to 19,639 in 1891. Near Châlons, which takes its name from the Catalauni of Latin writers, the Romans and Goths in 451 A.D. defeated Attila (q.v.) and his host of Huns. In 1856 Napoleon III. formed the celebrated camp of Châlons, 16 miles to the north-east of the town. Hence, during the Franco-Prussian war, on the night of August 21, 1870, MacMahon withdrew his troops, and next day the town was occupied by the Germans.

Châlon-sur-Saône (ancient Cabillonum), a town in the French department of Saône-et-Loire, 84 miles by rail N. of Lyons. Lying on the right bank of the Saône, at the point where that river is joined by the Canal du Centre, uniting it with the Loire, Châlon has an extensive traffic with the central districts of France, as well as with the Mediterranean and Atlantic. Fine quays and houses line the river; and the chief building is the church of St Vincent, 14th to 15th century. The industries are copper and iron founding, machinery and shipbuilding, and the manufacture of glass, paper, and chemicals. Pop. (1872) 20,055; (1886) 22,208; (1891) 22,974.

Chalybæus, HEINRICH MORITZ, philosopher, born at Pfaffroda in Saxony, 3d July 1796, spent some years in teaching, and was appointed in 1839 professor of Philosophy in the university of Kiel. He was dismissed, however, in 1852, owing to his Germanic sympathies, and died at Dresden, 22d September 1862. His chief work is his System der speculativen Ethik (1850); and his review of the historical development of speculative philosophy has been translated into English by Tulk (1854) and Edersheim (1860).

Chalybeate Waters are those which contain a considerable portion of iron in solution. See MINERAL WATERS.

Chalybite, an iron ore. See IRON.

Cham, the pseudonym assumed by the caricaturist, Amédée de Noé (Cham being the French for Ham, the son of Noah), son of the Comte de Noé by an English mother, and born at Paris in 1819. He studied art under Delaroche,

and soon acquired a great reputation as a skilful and witty delineator of the humorous side of Parisian life. In 1843 began his famous connection with the Charivari, in which paper and in the Journal des Pélerinages he continued to delight his fellow-citizens until close upon his death on 6th September 1879. He was profoundly sceptical, but not unkindly, and obtained, as Edmond About pointed out, the success of an homme d'esprit. His masterpieces were chiefly social rather than political, and among his skits may be mentioned Proudhomana, Bagneurs et Buveurs d'Eau, Souvenirs de Garrison, and L'Exposition de Londres. Several good collections of his comic illustrations have been made-for instance, Douze Années Comiques (1880), with an introduction by L. Halévy, and Les Folies Parisiennes (1883), with an introduction by Gérôme. In Sala's Paris herself again (1882) are a good many specimens of Cham's art.

Chama, a genus of bivalve molluscs, the only surviving type of a family which was once extremely numerous and abundant, especially in the Jurassic and Chalk times. The genus is represented by about half a hundred living forms, restricted to warmer waters, and especially common about coral reefs. The general appearance is somewhat clamlike, the valves are unequal, of considerable thickness, and covered with leaf or scale-like outgrowths. They are very passive animals, usually fixed, with the mantle margins fused together, with very small foot and respiratory apertures, with well-developed hinge and an external ligament, and often of a bright colour. Some forty fossil species are known from Cretaceous and Tertiary strata, and the genus is of interest as the sole survivor of a once much larger family. The common English name for shells of this genus is Clam (q.v.). Chamæleon (Gr. chamaileon, 'ground lion'), a large genus of lizards, forming a very distinct family. Among the most distinctive features may be noted the soft tuberculated skin, with its power of changing colour; the coiled tail, adapted for curling round the branches of trees; the division of the toes of fore and hind feet into two bundles; the absence of an external ear-drum or tympanic membrane; the long worm-like insect-catching tongue, capable of extremely rapid protrusion. Even more remarkably distinctive, however, are certain peculiarities in the skeleton, and especially in the skull, which separate the chameleons from

all other lizards.

Description. The body is flattened, and bears a toothed crest of skin along the back. The head is

Chamæleon.

triangular, surmounted by a ridge. The animal stands unusually high upon its legs. The fore-feet are divided into three united internal digits and two external; the reverse (and the digits, corresponding to our great and second toes, form one bundle, and the other three-external-another

CHAMELEON

The

united group) occurs in the hind-feet. The digits are tipped by long sharp claws. The long compressed tail is curled ventralwards. The mouthaperture is small, but the tongue extremely long. It is the most active part of the animal, is cupshaped at the end, covered with a viscid secre tion, and very efficient in insect-catching. large lateral eyes, with circular lids leaving only a small aperture, are very active, and can be rapidly turned in all directions, a possibility which to some extent compensates for the stiffness of the head. The skin is soft, loose, and shagreen-like, the scales being very small. The glandular pores common on the thighs and near the anus of lizards are absent.

Among the internal peculiarities may be noted the largeness of the lungs, which admit of being greatly distended, so as to puff out the body into marked plumpness. They appear to be connected with surrounding air-spaces. The habit the chamaleon has of thus blowing itself out, taken along with its power of fasting, gave origin to the ancient supposition that it fed on air. The skeletal peculiarities are numerous. The chama. leons differ from all lizards except the Amphis bona (q.v.), in having no 'columella' or epiptery goid skull-bone, and no interorbital septum, and from all other forms in the fact that the pterygoid and quadrate bones are not united. The latter is firmly fused to the skull, and the parietals are also peculiar in their firm attachments. The teeth are confined to a ridge along the summit of the jaws. The vertebræ are hollow in front; the breastbone is smail, and only a few anterior ribs reach it; as in the geckos, many of the posterior ribs are united ventrally by hoops across the abdomen; there are no clavicles; the scapula and coracoid of the shoulder-girdle and the ilia of the hip-girdle are peculiarly long and narrow.

Life and Habit.-Except as regards tongue and eyes, the chamæleons are very sluggish. They are strictly arboreal lizards, moving very slowly, in perfect silence, and waiting rather than hunting inches, about half as long as the body in some for their insect prey. At a distance of several cases, they can most unerringly catch the unconscious insect.

about chamæleons is their power of changing Probably the most familiar fact colour. Under the thin outer skin there are two layers of pigment-containing cells, the outer bright yellow, the inner brown to black. Under nerve control the disposition and expansion of the pigment-containing cells vary, and this produces change of colour. The change depends much more on internal emotions, expressing themselves in nervous stimulus and inhibition, than on external physical influences. The change appears to be rather emotional than protective. Most chamaleons are oviparous, and lay 30 to 40 thin-shelled eggs, which are deposited in an excavated hollow and covered over with earth and leaves. Moseley has described a South African species which brings forth its young alive.

Species and Distribution.-The genus Chamæleo is a large one, and some naturalists split it up. Chamæleons are especially at home in the Ethiopian region, but may occur beyond its limits. The commonest of the numerous species is C. vulgaris, which is abundant in Africa, and is also found in South Europe (Andalusia). The predominant colour varies in different species. Many males are adorned with horns on the head. One form, distinguished as a distinct genus (Rhampholeon), has a tail too short for clasping purposes, but this loss is made up for by accessory structures on the feet. The chamæleon was well described by Aristotle, but in later days became the subject of numerous ridiculous fables. It was also in repute

CHAMÆROPS

for supposed medicinal virtues. See LIZARD; Huxley's Anatomy of the Vertebrates; St George Mivart in Nature, vol. xxiv.; Krukenberg's Vergleichend-Physiol. Studien, i. 3 (1880), for colour change.

Chamæ'rops, a genus of palms, remarkable for its wide range into northern climates through out the world, and of which one species, C. humilis, is the only palm truly indigenous to Europe. This species, the common Fan-palm, is widely distributed through Southern Europe, extending as far north as Nice. This palm is so tolerant of a cold climate, that a specimen has lived in the open air in the Botanic Garden of Edinburgh for more than fifty years, with the protection of matting in very se ere winters. It forms dense furze-like thickets from the suckers which arise from its creeping roots, bat when these are not allowed to grow, its stem nay reach a height of 20 feet or more. In Algeria it is troublesome to agriculturists, but its growth is increasingly becoming of profit on account of the excellent fibre yielded by its stem. This the Arabs mix with camel's hair and make into hut-covers, &c.; cordage and sailcloth, paper and pasteboard, are also prepared from it, and it also finds many uses under the title of vegetable or African horsehair. The leaves are also used in paper-making, and furnish a convenient thatching material. This species is sometimes called palmetto in Europe. The true Palmetto (q.v.) is C. (Sabal) palmetto of Florida and Carolina (see also BRAZILIAN GRASS). In China and Japan C. excelsa and C. Fortuni are specially prominent; both can be grown in the open air in the south of England.

Chamalari, a peak (23,944 feet) of the Hima layas, between Tibet and Bhutan, 140 miles E. of Mount Everest.

Chamba, one of the Punjab Hill States, immediately SE. of Cashmere, with an estimated area of 3180 sq. m. Pop. (1891) 124,032, nearly all Hindus. It is shut in on nearly all sides by lofty hills, and traversed by two ranges of snowy peaks and glaciers, with fertile valleys to the south and west. The banks of the Ravi and Chenab, two of the five great Punjab rivers, are clothed with mighty forests, leased to the British government, which takes £10,000 to £20,000 worth of timber from them every year. Agriculture and grazing are the leading industries; iron, copper, and slate are plentiful; and the mountains teem with game. The principality came into the hands of the British in 1846, who in 1847 assigned it to the present line of rajahs; an annual tribute is paid, reduced, since the establishment of a British sanatorium and two cantonments among the hills, to £500.

Chambal, a principal tributary of the Jumna River, rises in the Vindhya Range, 2019 feet above sea-level, flows in a north-easterly direction, and after a course of 650 miles falls into the Junina 40 miles below the town of Etawah. In heavy rains its volume is greater than that of the Jumna. Chamber, of a firearm, is the name given to that part of the bore which contains the powder, when its diameter is not the same as the Calibre (q.v.) of the gun. Formerly, chambers were always smaller in diameter than the bore, to prevent any air-space behind the projectile, but now that much heavier charges are fired, they are made larger. They tend to weaken the gun, but enable a shorter cartridge to be used, and so prevent the dangerous wave action which would be set up in a long one. See CANNON and (under Rifles) RIFLED ARMS.

Chamberlain, an officer appointed by a king or nobleman, or by a corporation, to perform domestic and ceremonial duties. The LORD CHAMBERLAIN has been one of the principal officers

of state from at least the 13th century, and in 1406 parliament declared that he should always be a member of the council ex officio. Though he has long ceased to have any share in the responsibilities of government, the Chamberlain is still an officer of very high standing in the royal He has control over all the officers household. and servants 'above stairs,' except those of the bedchamber, over the establishment attached to the Chapel Royal, the physicians, surgeons, and apothecaries of the household. The chamberlain has further the oversight of the royal musicians, comedians, trumpeters, messengers, &c. When the office of Keeper of the Great Wardrobe was abolished in 1782, the duties of providing the state robes of the royal family, the household, and officers of state, devolved on the Lord Chamberlain. All theatres in towns in which a royal palace is situated require to be licensed by the Lord Chamberlain, and no new play can be performed His duties as anywhere without his license. licenser of theatres for the exhibition of plays (see PLAYS) are defined by acts passed in 1751 and 1843. All persons desiring to be presented at levees or drawing-rooms require to send their cards to the Lord Chamberlain, and it is his duty to see that the persons thus applying are entitled by station and character to be presented to the sovereign. The Chamberlain also issues invitations to royal balls, parties, and receptions. In accordance with ancient custom the Lord Chamberlain is still a member of the Privy-council. His salary is £2000 a year, but his tenure of office depends on that of the political party to which he belongs.

of the Lord Chamberlain, and in his absence The Vice-chamberlain is the deputy and assistant exercises the full authority which belongs to his principal. His office existed in the time of Richard II. He is also dependent on the administration, and is usually a member of the Privy-council. His salary is £924 per annum.

tary officer of great antiquity, and formerly of Chamberlain, THE LORD GREAT, is a heredigreat importance. He has the government of the palace at Westminster, and upon solemn occasions the keys of Westminster Hall and of the Court of Requests are delivered to him. At these times the Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod, the Yeoman Usher, and the door-keepers are under his orders. At coronations, state trials, banquets, and the like, the fitting-up of the Hall devolves on him. When Chamberlain delivers the sword of state to any the King goes to parliament, the Lord Great member of the administration whom he chooses, to be borne before His Majesty, he himself walking on his right hand. During the sitting of parliament he has charge of the House of Lords, and issues tickets of admission on the opening or prorogation of parliament. Some fees and perquisites belong to him. This office was conferred by Henry I. in 1101 on Alberic de Vere. Mary, daughter of John de Vere, sixteenth Earl of Oxford, married Peregrine Bertie, the 'brave Lord Willoughby' (1555-1601); and on the death of their last male descendant in 1779, the honour, after much litigation, was adjudged to belong conjointly to his sisters and co-heiresses-e.g. the Lady Willoughby de Eresby and the Marchioness of Cholmondeley, by whose descendants or their deputies its duties have since been discharged alternately.

Chamberlain, THE RIGHT HON. JOSEPH, M.P., is the eldest son of the late Mr Joseph Chamberlain, and was born in London in July 1836. He was educated at University College School, and entered his father's screw factory at Birmingham (the name of the firm being Nettlefold), from which,

90

CHAMBER MUSIC

however, he retired in 1874. Mr Chamberlain had by this time acquired considerable celebrity as a Radical politician. In 1868 he was appointed a member of the Birmingham Town-council; was Mayor of Birmingham from 1873 to 1876, and chairman of the Birmingham School-board from 1874 to 1876. After unsuccessfully contesting Sheffield against Mr Roebuck in 1874, he was returned for Birmingham without opposition in June 1876. He soon made his mark in parliament, and on the return of the Liberals to power in 1880 he was appointed President of the Board of Trade, with a seat in the cabinet. To Mr Chamberlain's exertions was due the passing of the Bankruptcy Bill, but his efforts to amend the Merchant Shipping Acts were unsuccessful. Meanwhile his influence was increasing rapidly outside the House; he came to be regarded as the leader of the extreme Radical party, and enunciated schemes for the regeneration of the masses which were based on the doctrines of the restitution' of land and the ransom' of property. During the last hours of Mr Gladstone's government he was understood to be opposed to the renewal of the Irish Crimes Act; and during the general election of 1886 he was most severe in his strictures on the moderate Liberals, and produced an 'unauthorised' programme (in opposition to that of Mr Gladstone), which included the readjustment of taxation, free schools, and the creation of allotments by compulsory purchase. He was returned free of expense by the western division of Birmingham. On February 1, 1886, he became President of the Local Government Board, but resigned on March 26 because of his strong objections to Mr Gladstone's Home Rule measures for Ireland; and after the Round Table' conference had failed to reunite the Liberal party he assumed an attitude of uncompromising hostility to his old leader's new policy, and was bitterly assailed by Home Rulers as a renegade. He became leader of the LiberalUnionists when the Duke of Devonshire went to the Upper House. Lord Salisbury sent him to Washington as commissioner on the Canadian fishery dispute; and in 1895 he was made Colonial minister in the Unionist Cabinet. As such he had, besides sharing in responsibilities of his colleagues (see SALISBURY), to face the troubles in South Africa (see JAMESON, L. S.), and to cherish closer fellow-feeling with the Colonies, as by welcoming the colonial ministers and colonial troops to London at the Queen's 'Diamond Jubilee' (1897), and by concessions to Canadian commercial autonomy. In 1896 he was elected Lord Rector of Glasgow University. Collections of his speeches (one with an introduction by Mr Lucy) have been published; and see the Life of him by S. H. Jeyes ('Public Men' series, 1896).

Chamber Music, as distinguished from concert or church music or opera, usually means instrumental music for a single instrument or for a small combination, up to the septett or octett.

Chamber of Commerce, a body of merchants, traders, bankers, and others, associated for the purpose of promoting local and general interests of trade and commerce by (1) representing and urging on the legislature the views of their members in mercantile affairs; (2) aiding in the preparation of legislative measures having reference to trade, such, for example, as the Bankrupt and Limited Liability Acts; (3) collecting statistics bearing upon the staple trade of the district; (4) acting in some places as a sort of court of arbitration in mercantile questions; (5) attaining by combination advantages in trade which might be beyond the reach of individual enterprise.

The oldest chamber of commerce is that of

CHAMBER OF COMMERCE

Marseilles, which dates from the end of the 14th or commencement of the 15th century. It shared in the municipal jurisdiction and in the administration of justice in mercantile questions. It was several times suppressed and re-established, and it was not till 1650 that it received its ultimate organisation. The chamber of Dunkirk was established in 1700. The same year a councilgeneral of commerce was instituted at Paris, which, in addition to six councillors of state, consisted of twelve merchants or traders, delegated by the prin cipal commercial towns of the country, an arrangement which led within the next few years to the formation of chambers of commerce everywhere in France. We thus find that the chamber at Lyons was instituted in 1702, those of Rouen and Toulouse in 1703, of Montpellier in 1704, of Bordeaux in 1705, &c. These chambers were all suppressed by a decree of the National Assembly in 1791, but they were re-established by a consular edict in 1802. Their organisation was modified in 1832, in 1851, and in 1852. The members of these bodies are now elected by the chief merchants of each town chosen for that purpose by the prefect. The number of this elective body cannot be less than 9 nor more than 21. They hold office for six years, one-third of their number being renewed every two years. The functions now assigned to these chambers in France are to give to the government advice and information on industrial and commercial subjects; to suggest the means of increas ing the industry and commerce of their respective districts, or of improving commercial legislation and taxation; to suggest the execution of works requisite for the public service, or which may tend to the increase of trade or commerce, such as the construction of harbours, the deepening of rivers, the formation of railways, and the like. On these and similar subjects the advice of the chambers, when not volunteered, is demanded by the government. In most of the other countries of continental Europe there are similar institutions.

The oldest chamber of commerce in Great Britain is believed to be that of Glasgow, which was instituted 1st January 1783, and obtained a royal charter, registered at Edinburgh on the 31st of the same month. That of Edinburgh was instituted in 1785, and incorporated by royal charter in 1786. The Edinburgh Chamber of Commerce was the first public body which petitioned for the abolition of the Corn Laws, and the adoption of free-trade principles; and it stood almost alone in the United Kingdom in advocating the Suez Canal project. It also originated the movement which resulted in placing the telegraph_service in connection with the Post-office. Between five and six hundred of the bankers, merchants, and ship-owners of Edinburgh and Leith conCommerce (1882) may now be regarded as the most stitute the chamber. The London Chamber of important in the United Kingdom. The main branches of commercial enterprise are dealt with by separate departments of the chamber, while by public lectures and the frequent publication of detailed reports it maintains communication with chambers of commerce throughout the country, and serves when necessary to unite and concentrate their action in the promotion of reforms in our mercantile system and in the development of the commercial resources of the empire. The Manchester chamber, so famous for its exertions in the cause of free trade, was not established till 1820, and for many years it continued to be the only institution of the kind in England. Its members number over 900. In Hull there has been a chamber of commerce since 1837, but those of Liverpool, Leeds, and Bradford, notwithstanding the great trading and manufacturing

interests of these towns, were not established till 1950; in which year also a similar institution was established in South Australia. The Liverpool Chamber of Commerce numbers 550. The annual income of the Manchester chamber is upwards of £1400, contributed entirely by the subscriptions, ranging from £1, 1s. for individual members, to £10, 10s. for large firms. There are now similar chambers in all the great mercantile towns of Great Britain and Ireland, and in 1860 there was established an Association of Chambers of Commerce of the United Kingdom,' which meets in annual conference for the promotion of commerce. The Chamber of Commerce of New York, organised in 1768, was incorporated by a royal charter in 1770, afterwards superseded by charter granted by the state government. Its aims are similar to those in Britain, and it comprises some 800 members, who have established a court of arbitration for differences amongst members. Like bodies have been formed in other large American cities. In Canada the Dominion Board of Trade consists of the Chambers of Commerce, or Boards of Trade, as they are indifferently called, of the most important cities of the Dominion.

Chambers are private rooms attached to most of the English courts, in which the judges, or more frequently the masters and chief clerks, transact a large amount of judicial business. In fact nearly all business which is begun by what is technically called a Summons in England goes to chambers e.g. all such incidental matters as the recovery of documents, examination of witnesses about to go abroad, investigation of accounts, settling of deeds between parties. A decree of the court which directs further procedure is carried out by a summons to proceed in chambers. Counsel attend in chambers only in important matters. In Scotland a good deal of this business takes the form of a remit to an accountant or other man of business, a judicial reference, a commission to examine

witnesses, but all initiated by a motion in court. Chamber-counsel, a barrister or advocate who gives opinions in his own chambers, but does not, or rarely does, plead in court.

Chambers, EPHRAIM, an amiable but frugal and free-thinking encyclopædist, was born about 1680 at Kendal, and began life as an apprentice to a globe-maker in London, where he conceived the idea of a cyclopædia that should surpass Harris's Lexicon Technicum (1704). It appeared in 2 folio vols. in 1728, and reached a 6th edition in 1750, Chambers having died meanwhile on 15th May 1740. A French translation gave rise to the more famous Encyclopedie of Diderot and D'Alembert; itself expanded into Rees's Encyclopædia. Dr Johnson told Boswell that he had partly formed his style upon Chambers's Proposal for his Dictionary. See ENCYCLOPÆDIA.

Chambers, SIR WILLIAM, architect, was born of a Scotch family at Stockholm in 1726, but was brought up in England. At first a sailor, he soon turned to the study of architecture in Italy and at Paris. He rose rapidly, and as early as 1757 was employed by Augusta, Princess-dowager of Wales, to construct the well-known semi-Roman and oriental buildings in Kew Gardens. The king of Sweden made him a knight of the Polar Star. Somerset House (1776) was his design, which Fergusson pronounces the greatest architectural work of the reign of George III.' His Treatise of Civil Architecture (1759) was successful, but his absurdly pretentious and ignorant Dissertation on Oriental Gardening (1772) justly covered him with ridicule. Chambers enjoyed the friendship of Johnson, Reynolds, and Garrick, and died in London, March 8, 1796.

91

Chambers, WILLIAM, publisher, was born 16th April 1800 at Peebles, his father being a cotton manufacturer there. The boy got a fair elementary education; but owing to the father's misfortunes, his schooling terminated with his thirteenth year. Hence his education for life-work was mainly due to the habit, very early acquired and long maintained, of miscellaneous and extensive reading, The household migrated to Edinburgh in 1813, and next year William was apprenticed to a bookseller. His five years up, he started business in a humble way for himself (May 1819), to bookselling afterwards adding printing. Between 1825 and 1830 he wrote the Book of Scotland, and in conjunction with his brother Robert, a Gazetteer of Scotland. His experience gained as a bookseller and printer was next utilised in his attempt to take advantage of the universal appetite for instruction which at present exists,' and to supply that appetite with food of the best kind,' which resulted in the founding of Chambers's Edinburgh Journal on 4th February 1832. This was about six weeks in advance of the Penny Magazine, and it may be considered the pioneer of that class of cheap and popular periodicals of a wholesome kind now so generally diffused. At the end of the fourteenth number he united with his brother Robert in founding the business of William & Robert Chambers, in which they were associated in writing, editing, printing, and publishing. W. & R. Chambers issued a series of works designed for popular instruction, including besides the Journal, Information for the People, 2 vols.; the Educational Course' series; Cyclopædia of English Literature, 2 vols.; Miscellany of Useful and Entertaining Tracts, 20 vols.; Papers for the People, 12 vols.; and the present Encyclopædia, 10 vols. (1859-1868; new edition, 1888-92). In 1849 William acquired the estate of Glenormiston, Peeblesshire, and in native town for purposes of social improvement. 1859 founded and endowed an institution in his Twice elected Lord Provost of Edinburgh, William occupied that office for four years (1865-69), during which he promoted several important public acts, including one for the improvement of the older part of the city, which has resulted in a great diminution of the death-rate. (The death-rate of the city in 1865-75 was 26-26 per 1000; in 1875-85, only 1994.) He also carried out at his Cathedral. He died 20th May 1883, having shortly own cost a thorough restoration of St Giles' before received the offer of a baronetcy. He was made LL.D. of Edinburgh in 1872. A statue has been erected to his memory in Edinburgh. Besides many contributions to the Journal, he was author and editor of various volumes, and wrote The Youths' Companion and Counsellor, History of Peeblesshire (1864), Ailie Gilroy, Stories of Remarkable Persons, Stories of Old Families, and Historical Sketch of St Giles' Cathedral (1879).

ROBERT CHAMBERS, born in Peebles, 10th July 1802, took to Latin and books at an early age, and began business as a bookseller in Edinburgh in 1818. His leisure hours were devoted to literary composition, the impulse to which, his brother says, came upon him like an inspiration at nineteen years of age. In 1824 he published the Traditions of Edinburgh, the writing of which procured him the friendship of Sir Walter Scott, who furnished some memoranda for the work. Between 1822 and 1834 he wrote in all twenty-five volumes, many of them of great literary interest and permanent historical value. He had already won reputation as an author when he joined his brother after the success of the Journal in 1832; and this success was materially promoted by his essays, and by his versatility and elegance as a writer, his diligence in collecting and working up stray