material, and his perception of what was suited to the popular taste in history, poetry, science and arts. In 1844 he published anonymously the remarkable work, Vestiges of Creation, which prepared the way for Darwin's great work, The Origin of Species. The authorship, positively ascribed to him in the Athenæum of 2d December 1854, was first acknowledged in Mr Ireland's introduction to the 12th ed. (1884). He received the degree of LL.D. from St Andrews in 1863. The labour in preparing the Book of Days (2 vols. 1863) broke his health, and he died at St Andrews, 17th March 1871. Other works by Robert are Popular Rhymes of Scotland, a valuable contribution to folklore (1847), History of the Rebellions in Scotland, Life of James I., Scottish Ballads and Songs (3 vols. 1829), Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen, Ancient Sea Margins (1838), The Life and Works of Robert Burns (4 vols. 1851), Domestic Annals of Scotland (3 vols. 1859-61), and Songs of Scotland prior to Burns (1862). His Select Writings (7 vols.) were published in 1847.-His son ROBERT CHAMBERS, born in 1832, became head of the firm in 1883, and conducted the Journal till his death, March 23, 1888.-See W. Chambers's Memoir of William and Robert Chambers (1872; 13th ed., with supplementary chapter, 1884).

Chambersburg, capital of Franklin county, Pennsylvania, in a pleasant valley 52 miles WSW. of Harrisburg by rail, has several manufactories, breweries, foundries, and machine-shops. A large part of the borough was burned by the Confederates in 1864. Pop. (1880) 6877; (1890) 8006.

Chambertin, a famous red Burgundy, obtained from a vineyard (62 acres) of that name in the French department of Côte-d'Or, 7 miles S. of Dijon by rail.

Chambéry, capital of the former duchy and present French department of Savoy, beautifully situated between two ridges of hills, amid gardens and country seats, 370 miles SE. of Paris by rail. The scenery around, with the river Laisse flowing through the valley, is exceedingly fine. The town itself, however, is dull and uninteresting, with narrow and gloomy streets winding between high cathedral, the palace of justice, and the old castle of the Dukes of Savoy, restored early in the 19th century. Chambéry has manufactures of clocks, silk-gauze, soap, hats, paper, and a trade in silk, wine, coal, &c. Pop. (1891) 20,922. From 1525 to 1713 Chambéry was under the dominion of France, and again from the Revolution to 1815, when it was restored to the House of Savoy; but in 1860, by the cession of Savoy, it came again under the rule of France.

well-built houses. Notable edifices are the small

Chambeze, the farthest head-stream of the Congo, rises in the highlands south of Tanganyika, about 9° 40′ S. lat., and 33° 15′ E. long. Its tributaries are large, and form a considerable stream, which flows south-west to Lake Bangweolo (q.v.).

acres.

Chambord, a celebrated château in the French department of Loir-et-Cher, stands 12 miles E. of Blois, in the midst of a walled, sandy park of 13,000 Commenced by Francis I. in 1526, it is a huge Renaissance pile, with numberless turrets, chimneys, gables, and cupolas, and with four round towers, each 63 feet in diameter. There are no fewer than 440 rooms. Chambord, the 'Versailles of Touraine,' was a residence of the French kings down to Louis XV., who conferred it on Marshal Saxe; and here in 1670 Molière gave the first representation of his Bourgeois Gentilhomme. Among its various occupants were Diane de Poitiers, Stanislaus of Poland, and Marshal Berthier, upon whom it was bestowed by Napoleon in 1809. It was

CHAMBRE INTROUVABLE

bought from his widow in 1821 for 1,542,000 francs, and presented to the future Comte de Chambord, who spent large sums on its restoration. He left it to his wife, and, after her, to her nephews, by a will which was more than once disputed, but recog nised by the state as valid. See La Question de Chambord, by J. B. C. Arnauld (1887).

Chambord, HENRI CHARLES DIEUDONNÉ, COMTE DE, was born in Paris, 29th September 1820, seven months after the assassination of his father, the Duc de Berri (q.v.). On the day of his baptism with water brought by Châteaubriand from the Jordan, the Child of Miracle' was presented by the Legitimists with the château of Chambord; hence in 1844 he dropped the title of Duc de Bordeaux for that by which he was most usually known. When Charles X. abdicated at the

July revolution of 1830, he did so in favour of his little grandson; but the people insisted on the citizen king,' and the elder Bourbons were driven into exile. They fixed their court successively at Holyrood, Prague, and Görz, where the old king died in 1836, and the young count was trained in clerical and absolutist ideas by his aunt, the Duchesse d'Angoulême, and his tutor, the Duc de Damas. A good, dull, timid soul, whon D'Orsay likened to a palace with no room furnished but the chapel,' 'Henry V.' had three times a chance of regaining the crown of his ancestors-in 1848, 1870, and 1873, on which last occasion, three months after Thiers's overthrow, he paid an incognito visit to Versailles. Each time he fooled away his opportunities, always vanishing just when his presence was indispensable, and ever protesting that he would never abandon the white flag of Joan of Arc.' A fall from his horse (1841) had lamed him for life; his marriage (1846) with the Princess of Modena (1817-86) brought him no successor; and in keeping up a stately mimic court, in stag-hunting from a phaeton, in issuing manifestoes, in visiting innumerable churches, and in much travelling, he passed forty years of blameless inertia. His death, after long suffering, at his castle of Frohsdorf, in Lower Austria, 24th August 1883, The Comte de Paris (1838-1894) inherited his claims. See BOURBON; and the Comte de Falloux' Mémoires d'un Royaliste (2 vols. Paris, 1888).

was a relief at once to himself and to his adherents.

Chambre Ardente ('the fiery chamber'), a name given at different times in France to an extraordinary court of justice, probably on account of the severity of the punishments which it awarded, the most common being that of death by fire. In the year 1535, Francis I. established an Inquisitorial Tribunal and a Chambre Ardente. Both were intended for the extirpation of heresy. The former searched out cases of heresy, and instructed the processes; while the latter both pronounced and executed the final judgment. Under Henri II., the activity of the Chambre Ardente received a new impulse. In 1679 Louis XIV. employed a Chambre Ardente to investigate the numerous reports of poisoning cases which the trial of the Marchioness Brinvilliers (q.v.) caused to be circulated. Many persons of the first rank were examined on suspicion, but no one was executed except the pretended sorcerer, Voisin (1680).

Chambre Introuvable (Fr., the chamber the like of which is not to be found again') was the name given to that Chamber of Deputies in France which met after the second return of Louis XVIII. (July 1815), and which, by its fanatical royalty, began to throw the country and society anew into commotion. The name was given to it by the king in his gratitude (though some think even he spoke ironically); but it soon came to be used sarcastically for any ultra-royalist assembly.

CHAMELEON

Chameleon. See CHAMELEON. Chamfer. In Architecture, an angle which is slightly pared off is said to be chamfered; a large chamfer, as in a wall at the window opening, is called a splay. The chamfer is sometimes made slightly concave, in which case it is called a hollow chamfer. Chamfers, in Gothic architecture, have frequently ornamental terminations of various kinds. The term chamfer is applied to woodwork as well as stone.

Chamfort, NICOLAS, a famous writer of maxims and anecdotes, was born in Auvergne in 1741. He was of illegitimate birth, and was educated at one of the Paris colleges, where he obtained a scholarship. Having distinguished himself in the prize competitions of the Academy, he gained an entrance into the highest literary circles in Paris, and for some years lived literally by his wit, if not by his wits. At one time Madame Helvétius gave him free lodgings at Sèvres, and he was afterwards made independent by a pension bestowed on him by a now forgotten man of letters named Chabanon. At the Revolution he espoused the popular side, and was hailed in the clubs as La RochefoucauldChamfort. After a time, however, certain incisive witticisms-such as, 'Be my brother or I will kill you,'-drew down on him the anger of the Jacobin leaders. Threatened with arrest, he tried to commit suicide, wounded himself horribly, and died after several days' suffering, 13th April 1794. His writings include tales, dramas, and éloges on Molière and La Fontaine-all of little or no worth-a brilliant collection of maxims, and an even more admirable collection of anecdotes. Many of his sayings are among the sharpest and bitterest ever pennedthe utterances of a reluctant but sincere cynic, whose insight into human weakness was unusually keen. He has never been excelled as a writer of anecdotes; his work under this head contains a series of portraits in miniature, drawn with the hand of a master, of the Parisian society of his day. Auguis edited his works (5 vols. 1824-25).

Chamier, FREDERIC, an English novelist, born in 1796, entered the navy in 1809, and retiring in 1833, was promoted to be captain in 1856. He had settled near Waltham Abbey, and turned his attention to literary pursuits. Marryat's success in depicting sea-life fed Chamier to try the same field, in which he was not without success, though in invention and humour he falls short of his model. His best romances, now almost forgotten, are Life of a Sailor (1832), Ben Brace (1836), The Arethusa (1837), Jack Adams (1838), and Tom Bowline (1841). He also wrote a continuation of James's Naval History (1837), and a somewhat prejudiced Review of the French Revolution of 1848 (1849). He died 1st November 1870.

Chamisso, ADELBERT VON, one of the most celebrated of German lyric poets, was born in 1781, at the château of Boncourt, in Champagne. The French Revolution driving his parents to settle in Prussia in 1790, he became in 1796 a page of the queen, and two years later entered the Prussian service. But when the campaign of 1806 broke out he returned to France, for though no admirer of Napoleon, he would not fight against his native land. At this time he was thrown into the circle of Madame de Staël at Coppet, and there began that study of natural science which he afterwards pursued at Berlin. In 1815-18 he accompanied a Russian exploring expedition round the world as naturalist (see CORAL); and on his return was appointed custodian of the Botanical Garden of Berlin. In 1835 he was elected to the Academy of Science; and, after a happy domestic life, he died at Berlin, 21st August 1838, universally loved and aonoured. He wrote several works on natural

history, but his fame rests partly on his poetical productions, still more on his quaint and humorous fiction called Peter Schlemihl (1813), the story of the man who lost his shadow, which has been translated into almost all the languages of Europe. The character of his poetry is wild and gloomy, and he is fond of rugged and horrible subjects. In his political songs he succeeds well in humour and irony; nor is he deficient in deep and genuine feeling. Indeed, several of his ballads and romances are His collected works masterpieces in their way. have been edited by Hitzig (6th ed. 1874). See lives by Fulda (1881) and Lentzner (Lond. 1893).

Chamois (Antilope or Rupicapra, Ger. Gemse), a goat-like species or genus of Antelope (q.v.). It inhabits the Alps and other high mountains of Central and Southern Europe, such as the Pyrenees,

the Carpathians, and the mountains of Greece; it is also found on some of the Mediterranean islands, and on the Caucasus, Taurus, and other mountains of the west of Asia. In Europe it is now most numerous on the Bavarian and Styrian Alps. The chamois is about the size of a large goat, but the neck is longer in proportion, and the body shorter; the horns on both sexes are seldom more than six or seven inches long, black, rising nearly straight up from the forehead, and so bent back at the tip as to form a hook. A peculiar gland opens at the base of each horn. The summer colour is reddish brown, with a darker dorsal band, and a yellowish ventral surface; the winter colour is a darker brown, but white below. A dark brown band runs from the eye along each cheek. The rest of the head is pale yellow. The short tail is black.

The usual summer-resort of the chamois is in the

higher regions of the mountains, not far from the snow-line, and it is often to be seen lying on the snow. In winter it descends to the higher forests. The aromatic and bitter plants of the mountainpastures are its favourite food. Young twigs of rhododendron, willow, juniper, &c. are greedily devoured. It is like the ruminants generally-very fond of salt, and often licks stones for the saltpetre which forms on them. The chamois is gregarious flocks of one hundred used sometimes to be seen; but in the Swiss Alps, where the num bers have been much reduced by hunting, the flocks generally consist only of a few (4 to 20) individuals. Old males often live solitarily. The female bears one or rarely two young at a birth, in the month of March or April. The general cry of the chamois is a goat-like bleat.

It is an animal of extraordinary agility, and flocks may often be observed sporting in a remarkable manner among the rocky heights. It can leap over ravines 16 to 18 feet broad; a wall 14 feet high presents no hindrance to it; and it passes readily

up or down precipices which almost no other quadruped could attempt. The hunting of the chamois is attended with great hardship and much danger. The hunter sometimes goes out on the adventurous chase alone; but more frequently several go out together, dividing into parties, of which one drives and the other shoots. The scent, sight, and hearing of the chamois are extremely keen. When a flock is feeding, one is always on the watch, and by a sort of whistle, announces apprehended danger. The flesh is highly esteemed. The skin is made | into leather, and from it the original shammoy or shammy leather (wash-leather), so much prized for softness and warmth, was obtained, although the name has now become common also to leather prepared from the skins of other animals (see LEATHER and BUFF LEATHER). The horns are often used to adorn alpenstocks. Hairy balls or Concretions (q.v.) found in the stomach used to have a medicinal reputation. When taken young the chamois is easily tamed, and its general disposition is gentle and peaceable. See Keller, Die Gemse (Klagenfurt, 1885).

Chamomile. See CAMOMILE.

6

Chamouni, or CHAMONIX (Lat. Campus munitus, from the shelter of the mountains), a celebrated valley and village among the French Alps, in the department of Upper Savoy, lying 53 miles ESE. of Geneva, at an elevation of about 3400 feet above the level of the sea. The valley, bounded on the E. by the Col de Balme, is about 13 miles long and 2 broad, and is traversed by the Arve. On the north side lies Mont Brévent and the chain of the Aiguilles Rouges, and on the south, the giant group of Mont Blanc, from which enormous glaciers glide down, even in summer, almost to the bottom of the valley. The chief of these are the Glacier des Bossons, des Bois, de l'Argentière, and du Tour; the Glacier des Bois expands in its upper course into a great mountain-lake of ice called the Mer de Glace. The village of Chamouni owes its origin and its alternative name, Le Prieuré, to the Benedictine convent founded here before 1099. Until 1741, however, the valley was little sought; the region was known, from the savageness of its inhabitants, by the name of Les Montagnes Maudites, or accursed mountains.' In that year it was visited by two Englishmen, Pococke and Wyndham, who described it in the Transactions of the Royal Society, but it was only in 1787 that the attention of travellers was effectually called to it by the Genevese naturalist, De Saussure, and others. Since then the number of visitors has gradually increased; now over 15,000 tourists are accommodated annually in the large hotels that have sprung up in the village, where an English chapel was opened in 1860. Grazing and such farming as the elevation allows are carried on, but most of the people are in some fashion dependent on the strangers for their income. Here the best guides are to be found for the neighbouring Alps, and from this point Mont Blanc is usually ascended. the article ALPS there is a view of Chamouni, whose beauties have been celebrated by Byron, Coleridge, Shelley, Wordsworth, Lamartine, and Ruskin. Pop. of village, 600. See E. Whymper's admirable Guide to Chamonix and Mont Blanc (1896). Champac, or CHUMPAKA (Michelia Champaca), an Indian tree (order Magnoliaceæ ) possessing great beauty both of foliage and flowers, and venerated both by Brahmanists and Buddhists. Images of Buddha are made of its wood. Its yellow flowers and their sweet oppressive perfume are much celebrated in the poetry of the Hindus. The timber of this and other species is useful and fragrant, and the bark and root are employed in native medicine.

At

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CHAMPAGNE WINE

Champagne, a district and ancient province of France, surrounded by Luxemburg, Lorraine, Burgundy, Ile de France, and Orléanais; now forming the departments of Marne, Haute-Marne, Aube, and Ardennes, and parts of Yonne, Aisne, Seine-et-Marne, and Meuse. It was popularly divided into Upper and Lower Champagne and Brie Champenoise, and was fertile in its western, barren in its eastern part. Its chief towns were Troyes, Bar-sur-Aube, Leon, and Rheims. The province was about 180 miles long by 150 broad, its surface presenting extensive plains with ranges of hills, especially in the north and east.

In ancient times Champagne was known as a part of Gallia Lugdunensis, was subjugated by Cæsar, and afterwards was annexed to the kingdom established by the Franks. After the 11th century it had its own dukes, who were vassals of the French kings. By the marriage of Philip IV. with Joanna, heiress to the kingdom of Navarre, Champagne, and Brie, Champagne in 1284 came to the French crown, and was incorporated in 1328.

Champagne Wine is the produce of vineyards in the above-mentioned province of Champagne. There are white and red champagnes; the white is either sparkling or still. Sparkling or of a peculiar treatment during fermentation. effervescent (mousseux) champagne is the result In December the wine is racked off, and fined with singlass, and in March it is bottled and bottles are placed in a sloping position with the tightly corked. To clear the wine of sediment, the necks downward, so that the sediment may be deposited in the necks of the bottles. When this sediment has been poured off, some portion of a liqueur (a solution of sugar-candy in cognac with flavouring essences) is added to the wine, and every securely re-corked. The fermentation being incombottle is filled up with bright clarified wine, and plete when the wine is bottled, the carbonic acid gas generated in a confined space exerts pressure on itself, and it thus remains as a liquid in the into gas, and thus communicates the sparkling When this pressure is removed it expands property to champagne. The effervescence of the wine thus prepared bursts many bottles, in some sudden heat, as many as 20 and 25 per cent. have cases 10 per cent.; and in seasons of early and been burst. Still or non-effervescent champagne is first racked off in the March after the vintage. Creaming or slightly effervescent champagne (demimousseux) has more alcohol, but less carbonic acid gas than sparkling champagne.

wine.

The best varieties of this wine are produced at Rheims and Epernay, and generally on a chalky soil. Among white champagnes of the first class, the best are those of Sillery, which are of a fine amber hue, dry, spirituous, and possessing a superior bouquet; those of Ay and Mareuil are less spirituous, but are sparkling, with a pleasant bouquet, Other white wines of first class are those of Hautvilliers, Dizy, and Pierry.

The cellars in which the vintages are stored are cut out of the calcareous rock. The fact that the

sale of champagne is very extensive and lucrative, has naturally given rise to adulterations. Spurious champagne is readily manufactured by simply charging other light wines with carbonic acid gas. The popular notions about gooseberry champagne have but small foundation, if any. Gooseberryjuice is far more costly than grape-juice, wherever the grape flourishes, and in this country there are no such great gooseberry plantations as would be required for a flourishing champagne industry, which would demand a few hundred tons of fruit per annum. Recently, the German purveyors have succeeded in preparing light wines--such as Rhenish, Main, Neckar, Meissner, and Naumburg

CHAMPAIGN

--very like genuine champagne. And much champagne is made on French methods in California. Altogether it is estimated that the French district produces about 25,000,000 bottles, of which nearly 20,000,000 are exported (the export being five times as great as in 1844). See Vizetelly's monograph on the subject (1882).

Champaign, a city of Illinois, 128 miles SSW. of Chicago by rail. It has furniture and wagon factories, a female seminary, and the Illinois Industrial University (1868). Pop. (1890)

5839.

=

Champaran, a British Indian district in the NW. corner of Behar, with an area of 3531 sq. m. Champarty, or CHAMPERTY (a Norman-French word derived from campi pars the right of the feudal lord to take part of the produce of land cultivated by his tenants), means in English law a bargain whereby the one party is to assist the other in recovering property, and is to share in the proceeds. All such bargains are illegal, and therefore null and void. More particularly an agreement to advance funds, or supply evidence, or professional assistance, for remuneration contingent on success, and proportional to, or to be paid out of property recovered, is illegal; so is a purchase by a solicitor from his client of the subject matter of a pending suit; so is every such purchase, if the real object is only to enable the purchaser to maintain the suit. A man may, however, lawfully sell evidence, and may lawfully purchase an interest in property, though adverse claims exist which make litigation necessary for realising that interest. The sale of a mere right to sue is bad, the right to complain of a fraud is not a marketable commodity.' Champarty, as one form of Maintenance (q.v.), was made criminal by various old English statutes, but these are never enforced, and the Criminal Law Commission recommended their repeal. In Scotland there is no law against maintenance and champarty. There is a common-law doctrine against what were in the Roman law called pacta de quota litis-i.e. purchases of litigations by professional men connected with the suit, who thus had exceptional advantages in making such a contract. But this would not probably be held to strike against an agreement by a non-professional person to advance funds for litigation on terms depending on the result, provided the terms were not extortionate or unconscionable. A Scottish act of 1594 prohibits the purchases of pleas by advocates or agents. In both countries a solicitor can lawfully agree to charge nothing except in event of success; and by recent statute, agreements for the division of profits between town and country agents are inade legal. Although there are traces of the law of champarty in the United States, the American law resembles that of Scotland more than that of England. Contracts by solicitors for contingent fees, to the extent even of one-half the property in dispute, have been sustained. In general, however, the American law construes professional contracts as merely giving security for the true worth of the services rendered.

Champfleury, the assumed name of JULES FLEURY-HUSSON, French author, born at Laon, 10th September 1821, achieved some distinction as a realistic writer of plays and romances. Works of greater value, however, are those on the history of caricature, of literature, and of art from 1825 to 1840, and his Bibliographie Céramique (1882). He died director of the potteries at Sevres, 7th Decem

ber 1889.

Champion (Low Lat. campio, from Low Lat. campus, a combat,' whence also A.S. camp, a fight'). In the judicial combats of the middle ages, it was allowed to women, children, and

aged persons, except in cases of high treason or of parricide, to appear in the lists by a representative. Such a hired combatant was called a champion. Those who followed this profession were generally of the lowest class, and were held disreputable (see BATTLE, WAGER OF). At a later period, in the age of chivalry, the word champion came to have a more dignified acceptation, and signified a knight who entered the lists on behalf of an injured lady, of a child, or of any one incapable of self-defence (see CHIVALRY). In England, the crown had its champion, the Champion of England, who, mounted on horseback and armed to the teeth, challenged, at every coronation at the lawful sovereign. Westminster, all who should deny the king to be This office is said by Dugdale to have been conferred by William the Conqueror on Robert de Marmion, with the Lincolnshire of that manor, the championship was claimed under manor of Scrivelsby; and by reason of his tenure Dymoke, who died in 1875, was the nineteenth Henry IV. by Thomas Dymoke. Henry Lionel the ceremonies of the championship were last exermember of this family who held the office. and Queries (1887) and Lodge's Scrivelsby (1893). cised at the coronation of George IV. See Notes

But

Champlain', a beautiful lake separating the states of New York and Vermont, and penetrating, at its north end, about 6 miles into the Dominion of Canada. Lying 91 feet above sea-level, it is 110 miles long, by from 1 to 15 broad, empties itself into the St Lawrence by the Richelieu River, and has communication by canal with the Hudson. The lake, now an important trade channel, was the scene of several incidents of the French and Indian revolutionary wars; and here a British flotilla was defeated by the Americans, 11th September 1814. It was discovered by Champlain in 1609.

Champlain, SAMUEL DE, French governor of Canada, and founder of Quebec, was born at Brouage in Saintonge in 1567, and in 1603 made his first voyage to Canada. In 1604-7 he was engaged in exploring the coasts, and on his third voyage in 1608 he founded Quebec. In 1612 he was appointed lieutenant of Canada (under an honorary governor); and the following years were occupied with attacks on the Iroquois, explorations of the interior, and journeys to France, until 1629, when he had to surrender to an English fleet, and was carried captive to England. Liberated in 1632, he returned to Canada in 1633, and died there in 1635. He published several works, reprinted at Quebec, in 4 vols. 1870.

Champlain Period, the name given by Professor Dana to the period succeeding the glacial, and therefore to some extent equivalent to the postglacial period of English geologists. See PLEISTOCENE OR GLACIAL SYSTEM.

of modern Egyptology, distinguished from his Champollion, JEAN FRANÇOIS, the founder elder brother as Champollion the younger,' was born December 23, 1791, at Figeac, in the French department of Lot. He was educated at Grenoble, and devoted himself from his boyhood to the study of oriental languages, especially Coptic. In 1807 he went to Paris to pursue these studies, and in 1816 he became professor of History at the Lyceum of Grenoble. He had already published (1811-14) the first two volumes of a large work entitled L'Égypte sous les Pharaons (3 vols.), in which he reproduced, by means of Coptic documents, the national geography of Egypt, when he was expelled from his chair for his Bonapartist sympathies. Comparison of the monuments with the MSS. led him to the conviction that the three systems of Egyptian writing, the hieratic, demotic,

and hieroglyphic, were essentially one; and that the hieroglyphs were not signs for ideas, but for sounds. The first results of his labours were published in De l'Écriture hiératique des anciens Egyptiens (1821) and his famous Lettre à M. Dacier (1822); and in his Précis du Système hieroglyphique (1824; 2d ed. 1828) he established the conclusion that the hieroglyphs were partly phonetic or alphabetic characters. The final solution by which he arrived at the whole alphabet of twenty-five letters (see HIEROGLYPHICS) was pronounced by Niebuhr to be the greatest discovery of the century. Champollion was sent by the king on a scientific mission to Italy in 1824-26, and in 1826 was appointed conservator of the Egyptian collections; and about the same time he published his Panthéon Egyptien (1823), with drawings of Egyptian deities from the papyrus-rolls and notes regarding their Egyptian designations, and his Lettres relatives au Musée royal Egyptien de Turin (2 vols. 1824-26). In 1828-30 he accompanied a scientific expedition sent to Egypt by the king of France. On his return to Paris he was made a member of the Académie des Inscriptions (1830), and a new chair of Egyptology was founded for him in the Collège de France. He died March 4, 1832. The MSS. which he left unpublished, extending to more than 2000 pages, were bought by the Royal Library at Paris for 50,000 francs. His posthumous works are Lettres écrites d'Égypte et de Nubie (1833; new ed. 1867); Grammaire Egypti enne, his principal work (3 vols. 1836-41); Monuments de l'Égypte et de la Nubie (5 vols. 1835-45); Dictionnaire Egyptien en écriture hieroglyphique (1842-44); and Monuments de l'Égypte et de la Nubie (1844), the last work being afterwards continued and completed under the superintendence of Rougé.

Champollion-Figeac, JEAN JACQUES, an archaeologist, was born 5th October 1778 at Figeac, in the department of Lot. After holding at Grenoble the offices of librarian and professor of Greek, he was appointed in 1828 conservator of MSS. in the Royal Library in Paris; but after the February revolution was deposed from office by Carnot. In 1848 he was appointed librarian of the palace of Fontainebleau. Besides the Antiquités de Grenoble (1807) and Recherches sur les patois de France (1809), his chief works include the Annales des Lagides (2 vols. 1819; supplement, 1821), Les Tournois du Roi René (1827-28), and numerous publications of French historical documents. After the death of his younger and more celebrated brother, Champollion-Figeac prepared, with the help of his MSS., L'Egypte ancienne et moderne (1840) and L'écriture démotique égyptienne (1843). Along with his son Aimé he wrote the text to Silvestre's Paleographie universelle (4 vols. 183941). He died 9th May 1867.-AIME (1812-94) wrote on the Dukes of Orleans, Francis I., and Les Deux Champollions (1888).

Chance (through the French from Low Lat. cadentia), in its original and strict meaning, may be defined as that which determines the course of events, in the absence of law, ordinary causation, or providence. Strictly speaking, it is an idea which few would now be disposed to admit as corresponding to anything which really exists; the religious mind excluding it as inconsistent with the belief in the divine government, and the philosophical mind rejecting it as inconsistent with a recognition of universal laws of causation. As a word, however, it has always been, and always will be popularly accepted; and its use is correct so far as we overlook, or choose for the moment to throw out of view, the more universal connection of events, and regard them as their emergence, on

CHANCELLOR

a superficial view, appears to be determined. It is clear that chance, being only legitimate as an expression in popular parlance, is a term which is much too indefinite to admit of any kind of measurement. What is sometimes called the Doctrine of Chances is more properly the Theory of Probabilities, and will be dealt with under the head of PROBABILITIES. For games of chance, see GAMBLING.

Chancel (Lat. cancellus, 'a screen'). The chancel, choir, or eastern part of a church was often separated from the nave by a screen of lattice-work, so as to prevent general access thereto, it was in this part of the church that the service though not to interrupt either sight or sound. As the clergy were held to have a special right to it, was always performed previous to the Reformation, in return for which its repairs in general still fall on the impropriator, rector, or vicar, and not on the parish. The chief pew in the chancel belongs to the in the church, with this exception, belongs to the rector or impropriator, but the disposal of the seats ordinary, or, practically, to the churchwardens, to whom the authority of the ordinary is delegated. No monument, moreover, can be set up without the ordinary's consent. And where the freehold of the right of possession in it for public worship vests the chancel vests in a lay impropriator, nevertheless in the minister or churchwardens, so that they cannot be excluded from it, nor be charged with tresspass for making a door into it from the churchyard. The term chancel is usually confined to parish churches which have no aisles around the choir, or chapels behind it or around it; and in this

case the chancel and the choir have the same signification. In small churches which have no constructional chancel, the space within the altar rails is sometimes called by this name, but is more strictly styled the 'sanctuary.' But in larger churches there are sometimes chancels at the ends of the side aisles, and this whether the choir has the character of a choir in the larger sense, or of a chancel. See CHURCH.

that the chief notary or scribe of the Roman Chancellor (Lat. cancellarius). It is said emperor was called chancellor, either because he was intrusted with the power of obliterating, cancelling, or crossing out (cancellare, to make lattice-work') such expressions in the edicts of the prince as seemed to him to be at variance with the laws, or otherwise erroneous; or (more prob ably) because he sat intra cancellos, within the lattice-work or railings (cancelli) which were erected people when he sat in judgment. Neither the title to protect the emperor from the crowding of the nor the office of chancellor is at all peculiar to England. The chancellor of France (Chancelier de France) from a very early time was an officer of several other officers, bearing also the title of state of great power and dignity, under whom chancellor, were employed in the administration of justice and in the defence of the public order. The office was abolished at the Revolution; and though it was restored by the Bourbons, many of the functions of the old chancellor were transferred to the minister of justice, and have ever since been held by him.

In most of the other countries of Europe there are officers of state who bear this or analogous titles, though their powers and duties are very various. In medieval Germany the archbishop and elector of Mainz was Arch-chancellor of the Holy Roman empire, and appointed a Vice-chancellor. The chief functionary in the Austrian empire has often been termed chancellor; and on the reconstitution of the German empire, Prince Bismarck was made Chancellor of the Empire' (Reichskanzler).