PAPER-BOOK-PAPER-HANGINGS.

weights are placed upon it until it is rendered per fectly smooth and flat. Sometimes a number are joined together to increase the size of the sheets. It will be seen that this more nearly resembles the ancient papyrus than modern paper; but it is more beautiful than the former, being a very pure pearly white, and admirably adapted to the peculiar style of painting of the Chinese.

during the last eight years. They are as follows: 1862, 22,130 tons; 1863, 25,520 tons; 1864, 23,888 tous; 1865, 18,368 tons; 1866, 24,403 tons; 1867, 18,548 tons; 1868, 17,902 tons; 1869, 17,021 tons. The manufacture of paper has attained vast dimensions in the United States. In 1860 there were 555 mills, producing 131,508,000 pounds of printing, 22,268,000 pounds of writing, 33,379 tons of wrapping, 8150 tons of straw board, 1,944,000 pounds of The ordinary papers of the Chinese, Japanese, coloured, 91,960 pounds of bank-note, and 3097 tons of and East Indians have much resemblance to each wall paper-a total of 253,778,240 pounds, valued at other, which arises from the manufacture and $21,216,802. The increase of the product over that of material being similar; the bark of the paper 1850 was 108.2 per cent. See the Eighth Census, mulberry (Broussonetia papyrifera) being chiefly Manufactures, Washington, 1865. Printing-paper used. The Chinese and Japanese are the most is now made on a large scale at Manayunk, Philadel- skilful paper-makers in the world, and some of the phua, from the wood of the tulip poplar (Liriodendron East Indian papers surpass the European mauutulipifera) and hemlock spruce (Abies Canadensis); factures completely. twenty per cent. of straw pulp is introduced.

The following are the principal varieties of ordinary paper, and the sizes of the sheets given in inches:

1. Writing and Printing Papers.-Pot (so named from its original water-mark, a tankard), 12 by 15; Double Pot, 15 by 25. Foolscap, 16 by 13; Sheet-and-third Do., 22 by 131; Sheet-and-half Do., 22 by 131; Double Do., 27 by 17. Post (so called from its use in letter-writing; one of its original water-marks was a postman's horn), 18 by 151; Large Do., 20 by 16; Medium Do., 18 by 224; Double Do., 30 by 19. Copy, 20 by 16. Double Crown, 20 by 30. Demy, 20 by 15; Printing Do., 22 by 17; Medium Do., 22 by 17; Medium Printing Do., 23 by 18. Royal, 24 by 19; Printing Do., 25 by 20; Super-royal, 27 by 19; Super-royal Printing, 21 by 27. Imperial, 30 by 22. Atlas, 34 by 26. Columbier, 34 by 23. Elephant, 28 by 23; Double Do., 263 by 40. Antiquarian, 53 by 31: this is generally, if not always, hand-made.

These sizes are somewhat lessened by ploughing and finishing off the edges previous to sale.

2. Coarse Papers for wrapping and other purposes.-Kent-cap, 21 by 18; Bag-cap, 19 by 24; Havon-cap, 21 by 16; Imperial-cap, 221 by 29. Double 2-lb., 17 by 24; Double 4-., 21 by 31; Double 6-lb., 19 by 28. Cartridge, Casing, and Middle-hand, &c., 21 by 16. Lumber-hand, 19 22; Royal-hand, 20 by 25; Double Small-hand, 19 by 29.

by

Blotting and Filtering Paper.-This is unsized paper, made of good quality, and usually coloured pink or red, and of the same size as demy.

Even as regards materials, varieties are endless. In an old German book by Jacob Christian Schäffers, published at Regensburg in 1772, there are no less than eighty-one samples of different kinds of paper bound up and forming part of the book, and innumerable others have been made since.

Rice paper is a beautiful material imported from China, about which numberless errors have been written. It is now known to be formed of thin slices of the pith of the plant called Aralia papyrifera. This pith can be obtained from the stems in beautiful cylinders, from one to two inches in diameter, and several inches in length. The Chinese workmen apply the blade of a sharp, straight knife to these cylinders of pith, and, turning them round dexterously, pare them from the circumference to the centre, making a rolled layer of equal thickness throughout. This is unrolled, and

Some useful kinds of paper are the result of manipulations subsequent to the paper-maker's work. Thus:

Lithographic Paper is prepared from good printing-paper by laying on one side of the sheets a preparation consisting of six parts of starch, one of alum, and two of gum-arabic dissolved in warm water, and applied whilst hot with a proper brush. Generally a little gamboge is added, to give it a slight yellow colour.

Copying Paper, for manifold-writers, is made by applying a composition of lard and black-lead to one side or both of sheets of writing-paper; and after leaving it on for a day or so, it is carefully and smoothly scraped off and wiped with a soft cloth.

Tracing Paper is good printing-paper rendered transparent by brushing it over with a mixture of Canada balsam and oil of turpentine, or nut oil and turpentine. In either case it must be carefully dried before using.

There are two distinct classes of coloured papers. In one, the colour is introduced into the pulp, and is consequently in the body of the paper; in the other, the colours are mixed with size, and applied to the surface. There have been many ingenious and tasteful inventions for decorating the surface of paper, such as by giving it a marbled and even a beautiful iridescent appearance, but they are too numerous for the limits of this article.

Paper is subject to much adulteration. Chinaclay and gypsum are generally used for the white sorts, and the heavy ferruginous ochres for the coarse and brown kinds.

PAPER-BOOK, in English Law, is the name given to the pleadings on both sides in an action at law, when the issue is one, not of fact, but of law.

PAPER-HANGINGS. This name is applied to the webs of paper, papiers peints of the French, usually decorated, with which interior walls are often covered. Previous to the invention of the paper-machine, sheets of paper of the size called Elephant, 22 by 32 inches, were pasted together, to make 12 yard lengths, before the pattern was imprinted; but this is now rendered unnecessary by the facility of making webs of any length. Upon the paper it is usual first to spread a ground-colour, with proper brushes, taking care to produce a perfectly smooth surface. The colours employed are opaque, and are mixed with size, and sometimes also with starch, and most of the ordinary pigments are used. In the early stages of the art, it was usual to have the patterns stencilled (see STENCILLING) on the ground-colour. The stencilling plates were usually pieces of pasteboard, one being required for every differently-coloured portion of the pattern Afterwards, wooden blocks were adopted, similar to those used in calico-printing, made of pear or poplar wood, generally the width of the paper,

PAPER MULBERRY-PAPIAS.

forming, indeed, huge woodcuts, on which the pattern is in high relief. As many blocks are required as there are colours in the pattern, each bearing only so much of the pattern as is represented by the colour to which it is assigned. Of course, the whole beauty of the work depends upon the nice adjustment of one portion of the pattern to another; and this is determined by guide-pins in the blocks, which are so managed as not to disfigure the surface with their points. The pattern-block, being coated with its particular colour from the colour-tub, is laid on the paper, which is stretched at for the purpose on a table, and a lever is brought to bear upon it with sufficient pressure to make the whole of the block bear equally upon the paper. When one block has been printed the whole length of the paper by a succession of impressions, the piece is taken to the drying-room, and dried, previous to receiving the next colour; and it often happens that the same operations have to be repeated a dozen different times before the pattern is completed. This process is now being rapidly superseded by the cylinder printing-machines, which are of the same kind as are used in printing textile fabrics. In these machines, the pattern is engraved on a series of copper cylinders, and each part or colour has a separate cylinder, and an arrangement for keeping it constantly supplied with colour when working. The cylinders are so arranged as, by the sum of their revolutions, to make the pattern complete; so that as the web of paper passes the first, it receives the colour for one portion of the pattern,

and reaches the second in exact time to have the next colour applied in the right places. In this way the entire piece only occupies a few seconds in receiving the complete decoration.

The polished or glazed papers have the ground prepared with gypsum or plaster of Paris, and the surface dusted with finely-powdered steatite, or French chalk. When perfectly dry, this is rubbed hard with a burnishing-brush, until the whole is evenly polished. This is generally done before the pattern is printed, but in some cases pattern and ground are both polished. In making the flock-papers, the printing is done in the same way as in the block-printing, only, instead of coloured material, a composition called encaustic is printed on. It consists of linseed-oil, boiled with litharge, and ground up with white-lead; sufficient litharge is used to make it dry quickly, as it is very adhesive. The flock is prepared from the shearings of woollen cloths from the cloth-mills, by washing and dyeing the shearings to the various colours, then stove-drying and grinding them in a peculiar mill, which, in their brittle state, after leaving the stove, breaks them short. After this they are sifted, to obtain various degrees of fineness. By nice management, the prepared flock is so sprinkled over the whole of the printed surface as to coat the encaustic, and adhere evenly and firmly to it. The same adhesive material is used for printing in gold and other metals. The pattern being printed with the encaustic, gold or other metallic leaf is applied, and when it is properly fixed, the loose metal is brushed away with a hare's-foot or other soft brush. Some of the finest French papers have much of the pattern actually painted in by hand, a process which, of course, renders them very costly.

PAPER MULBERRY. See MULBERRY. PAPER NAUTILUS. See ARGONAUT. PAPHLAGOʻNIA, anciently a province of Asia Minor. extending along the southern shores of the Black Sea, from the Halys on the east, to the Parthenius on the west (which separates it from Bithynia),

and inland on the south to Galatia. Its limits, however, were somewhat different at different times. The Paphlagonian mountains were covered with forests, and the inhabitants were famous as hunters. Croesus made P. a part of the kingdom of Lydia, and Cyrus united it to Persia; it subsequently became part of the empire of Alexander the Great, and afterwards of the kingdom of Pontus, was included in the Roman province of Galatia, and in the 4th c. of the Christian era was made a separate province by Constantine. Its capital was Sinope. The Paphlagonians are supposed to have been of Syrian, or at least of Semitic origin, like the Cappadocians. They were proverbially rude, coarse, and deficient in understanding, but this probably refers only to the country-people in the interior.

isle of Cyprus.

from the coast.

PA'PHOS, anciently the name of two cities in the Palaipaphos (now Kuklos or Konuklia), was situated The older city, sometimes called in the western part of the island, about 14 miles Phoenicians, and was famous, even before Homer's It was probably founded by the time, for a temple of Venus, who was said to have Aphrodite, foam-sprung,' and who was designated here risen from the sea close by, whence her epithet the Paphian goddess. This was her chief residence, and hither crowds of pilgrims used to come in ancient times.-The other Paphos, called Neopaphos (now Baffa), was on the sea-coast, about seven or the place in which the apostle Paul proclaimed the eight miles north-west of the older city, and was gospel before the proconsul Sergius.

are

PA'PIAS, Bishop of Hierapolis in Phrygia, was a Christian writer, who flourished in the 2d century. According to Irenæus, he was a disciple of the apostle John; but Eusebius, who quotes (Historia Ecclesiastica, chap. 39) the words of Irenæus, immediately subjoins a passage from P. himself, in which the latter distinctly states that he did not receive his doctrines from any of the apostles, but from the living voice' of such followers of theirs as still surviving.' He was, however, an 'associate' of Polycarp, a bishop in the same province of proconsular Asia; and as the latter was a disciple of the apostle John, it is probable that Irenæus--a somewhat hasty writer-inferred that his companion must have been the same. The Paschal or Alexandrian Chronicle states that he suffered martyrdom at Pergamus, 163 A. D. Eusebius describes P. as 'well skilled in all manner of learning, and well acquainted with the Scriptures ;' but a little further on, he speaks of him as a man of limited understanding' (smikròs ōn tòn noun), and a very credulous chronicler of unwritten tradition,' who had collected certain strange parables of our Lord and of his doctrine, and some other matters rather too fabulous.' The work in which these were contained was entitled Logiōn Kuriakōn, Exegêseōs Biblia E'. (Five Books of Commentaries on the Sayings of our Lord). It is now lost, but certain fragments of it have been preserved by Irenæus, Eusebius, Maximus Confessor, and other writers. These fragments are extremely interesting, because of the light which they throw on the origin of the New Testament Scriptures, and their importance may be estimated from the fact, that they contain the earliest information which we possess on the subject. It is P. who is our authority for the statement, that the evangelist Matthew drew up a collection of our Lord's sayings and doings (ta logia) in the Hebrew (probably SyroChaldaic or Aramaic) dialect, and that every one translated it as he was able. There can be no doubt that this is a perplexing statement, suggesting as it does the delicate question: "If Papias is correct, who wrote our present Matthew, which is in Greek,

PAPIER-MACHE-PAPIN.

and not in Hebrew?' (For a consideration of this point, see MATTHEW.) P. also tells us, either on the authority of John the Presbyter, or more probably on that of one of his followers, that the evangelist Mark was the interpreter (Hermeneutes) of Peter, and wrote whatsoever he [Peter] recorded, with great accuracy.' But the passage is far from implying that Mark was a mere amanuensis of Peter, as some have asserted, but only, as Valesius has shewn, that Mark listened attentively to Peter's preaching, culled from it such things as most strictly concerned Christ, and so drew up his gospel. P., it remains to be said, was an extreme millennarian. See MILLENNIUM.

PAPIER-MACHE (Fr. mashed or pulped paper). This manufacture has certainly been in use for more than a century in Europe; but it is not improbable that it was first suggested by some of the beautiful productions of Sinde and other parts of India, where it is employed in making boxes, trays, &c., as well as in China and Japan. Its first application, as far as we know, was to the manufacture of snuff-boxes by a German named Martin, in 1740, who learned it of a Frenchman named Lefevre; but the French say that he learned the art in England. Properly speaking, papier-mâché is paper-pulp moulded into shape, and it has been used, not only to make small articles, such as boxes, trays, &c., but in the interior decoration of houses for cornices, ceilings, &c. The ceilings in Chesterfield House, and some other fine Elizabethan structures, are made of this material, which at one time, owing to a combination of the stucco-workers to raise the price of their labour, took the place almost entirely of stucco in house ornamentation. At present, a combination of both stucco and paper is similarly employed under the name of Carton-pierre. From the extension of the applications of papier-mâché to the manufacture of a number of light and useful articles, modifications have taken place in its composition, and it is now of three kinds-1st, the true kind, made of pulp; 2d, sheets of paper pasted together after the manner of pasteboard, but submitted to far greater pressure; and 3d, sheets of thick millboard cast from the pulp are also heavily pressed. The term papier-mâché is in trade held to apply rather to the articles made of the pulp than to the pulp itself; and a vast manufacture has sprung up during the present century, particularly in Birmingham, in which a great variety of articles of use and ornament are made of this material. They are coated with successive layers of asphalt varnish, which is acted upon by heat in ovens until its volatile parts are dissipated, and it becomes hard, and capable of receiving a high polish. Mother-of-pearl is much used in their decoration, for which purpose, when several layers of the varnish still remain to be applied, thin flakes of the shell of the form of the pattern are placed on the varnish, and are covered by the succeeding layers, giving rise to elevations where they are hidden by the coats of varnish. The surface is then ground down smooth and polished, and the grinding down brings to light the pieces of mother-of-pearl shell, which thus present the appearance of inlaid patterns. The fine surface which can be given to the asphalt varnish, also permits of burnished gilding and other decorative applications with excellent ellect.

PAPILIO. See BUTTERFLY.

paper

PAPILIONA CEA, a suborder of the natural order of plants generally called Leguminosa (q. v.). -The plants of this suborder are the only plants known which have flowers of the peculiar structure called papilionaceous, and of which the Pea and

Bean afford familiar examples. The name is derived from Lat. papilio, a butterfly. Papilionaceous flowers have five petals, imbricated in estivation (bud), one of which, called the vexillum, or standard, is superior, turned next to the axis, and in estivation folded over the rest; two, called the ala, or wings, are lateral; and two are inferior, which are often united by their lower margins, forming the carina, or keel. The number of the P. is very great-about 4800 species being known. They are found in all parts of the world, abounding in the tropics. Many have superb and beautiful flowers; many are plants of beautiful form and foliage, trees, shrubs, or herta ceous plants; many possess valuable mediciua properties; and many are of great importance as furnishing food for man and for domestic animals, BROOM, LABURNUM, CLOVER, BEAN, PEA, LUCERNE, others as furnishing dyes, fibre, timber, &c. See LIQUORICE, INDIGO, SANDAL-WOOD, &c.

PAPILLA. This term is applied by anatomists to minute, elongated, conical processes, projecting from the surface of the true skin into the epidermis, highly vascular and nervous in their character, and taking an active part in the sense of touch. Their form and structure are described in the article SKIN. The mucous membrane of the tongue also contains three varieties of papillæ, which are described in the article TASTE, ORGAN AND SENSE OF.

PAPIN, DENIS, a celebrated French physicist, was born at Blois, 22d August 1647, and studied medicine in Paris, where, after receiving his degree, he practised for some time as a physician. He now became acquainted with Huyghens-an incident which strengthened in him an original predilection for physical science; and from this time, he devoted himself almost exclusively to his favourite study. Before P.'s time, the intense force which can be generated in water, air, &c., under the action of heat, was well known, but he was one of the first to indicate the principal features of a machine by which this property could be made of practical utility. He soon acquired a wide reputation; and on visiting England, was received with open arms by the philosophers of that country, and became a member of the Royal Society in 1681. While in England, P. and Boyle (q. v.) together repeated their experiments on the properties of air, &c.; but in 1687, P. was called to the chair of Mathematics in the university of Marburg in Hesse-Cassel, the duties of which office he discharged with zeal and He died at Marburg success for many years. about 1714.

The French Academy of Sciences, withholding from P. the honour of associate,' enrolled him among its correspondents'-a proceeding on the part of the Academy which has, with reason, excited the astonishment of F. Arago. To P. undoubtedly belongs the high honour of having first applied steam to produce motion by raising a piston; he combined with this the simplest means of producing a vacuum beneath the raised piston-viz., by condensation of aqueous vapour; he is also the inventor of the safety-valve,' au essential part of his 'Digester' (q. v.). By this latter machine, P. shewed that liquids in a vacuum can be put in a state of ebullition at a much lower temperature than when freely exposed to the air. P.'s sagacity led him to many other discoveries; he discovered the principle of action of the siphon, improved the pneumatic machine of Otto de Guericke (q. v.), and took part against Leibnitz in the discussion concerning 'living' and 'dead' forces. Unfortunately for science, P.'s numerous writings have not yet been collected, but many of them will be found in the Philosophical Transactions, Acta Eruditorum, and the Recueil de Diverses Pièces. He

PAPINIANUS-PAPPUS.

published two works-one being an explanation of the construction and uses of his digester' (Lond. 1681), afterwards (1682) translated into French, and his experiments entitled Nouvelles Expériences du Vide (Paris, 1674). It was not till nearly a century after that the great value of P.'s discoveries was perceived.

of Marshal of the Empire became hereditary about the 13th or 14th c., and many of whose members had greatly distinguished themselves in the wars of the middle ages. When about 20 years of age, P. went over to the Roman Catholic Church, and thenceforth signalised himself by his fiery zeal in its cause. After serving under the king of Poland in his wars with the Russians and Turks, P. joined the army of the Catholic League, and in the battle of Prague (1620) stayed the flight of the Austrian cavalry, and by a well-timed and furious charge turned the tide of battle against the Bohemians. In 1623, he received from the emperor the command of a cavalry regiment of the famous Pappenheimer Dragoons; and in 1625, becaine general of the Spanish horse in Lombardy; but in 1626 re-entered the Austrian service, and after sup pressing a dangerous revolt of the peasants of Upper Austria, in which 40,000 of the peasants perished, he joined the army which was opposed to the Protestant league, and, in association with Tilly, carried on many campaigns against the Danes, Swedes, and Saxons.

It was P. who urged and induced Tilly to take Magdeburg by assault, and himself led and directed the attack. Moreover, it is he, rather than Tilly, who was to blame for the ferocious massacres His reckless bravery involved which followed. Tilly, against his will, in the disastrous battle of Breitenfeld; but to some extent he retrieved his character by his strenuous efforts to remedy the loss, and protect the retreat of the army. After Tilly's death, he was associated with Wallenstein, who detached him with eight regiments to protect Cologne, but on hearing of the advance of Gustavus, sent an urgent order for his return. P. arrived at Lützen at the moment when Wallenstein's army was on the point of being completely routed, and at the head of his cuirassiers, charged the left wing of the Swedes, throwing it into confusion, and almost changing the fortune of the battle by his extraordinary bravery. He was mortally wounded in the last charge, and died a few hours afterwards at Leipzig, November 7, 1632, with a smile on his countenance, after learning that Gustavus Adolphus had died before him. 'God be praised!' he said; I can go in peace, now that that mortal enemy of the Catholic faith has had to die before me.'

PAPINIANUS, EMILIUS PAULLUS, the most celebrated of Roman jurists, was born towards the middle of the 2d c.; and during the reign of the Emperor Severus (q. v.), whom he succeeded as Advocatus Fisci, and whose second wife is said to have been P.'s relative, he held the office of Libellorum Magister, and afterwards that of Præfectus Prætorio. After the death of Severus, his son and successor, Caracalla, dismissed P. from his office, and soon afterwards caused him to be put to death on various pretexts, the real reason, however, appearing to be that the emperor was afraid the influence of a man so able and upright would be dangerous to his power. P.'s works consist chiefly of 37 books of Questiones, 19 of Responsa, 2 of Definitiones, two works, De Adulteriis, and a Greek fragment; and from these works there are in all 595 excerpts in the Digest (q. v.). The pupils of P. include the most famous names in Roman jurisprudence, such as Ulpian, Paullus, Pomponius, Africanus, Florentinus, and Modestinus, but the master stands superior to them all. The high reputation he enjoyed among his contemporaries and successors may be gathered from the epithets Prudentissimus, Consultissimus, Disertissimus, bestowed upon him by various emperors, and from the first book of the Codex Theodosii, De Responsis Prudentum, in which, after declaring the works of P., Paullus, Caius, Ulpian, Modestinus, and four others, to be authority for a judge's decision, it is declared that should these jurists be equally divided in opinion, that opinion which was maintained by P. was to be considered right; while his commentator, the celcbrated Cujacius (q. v.), goes so far as to declare that Papinianus was the first of all lawyers who have been, or are to be,' and that no one ever will equal him. His high reputation as a jurist was much enhanced by the strong moral feeling and stern unbending honesty which were cqually characteristic of him, and which have stamped his works with 'an ineffaceable impress. P.'s works were studied both before and after Justinian's time by Roman legal students of the third year, who were for this reason denominated Papinianista. The fragments of P.'s works which now remain are somewhat obscure, and the excerpts from them in the Digest are in generalIt consists either of so brief, that the aid of a commentator is required. simple (figs. 1 and 4) 1 PAPIST (Lat. papista, an adherent of the pope) or feathery (tigs. 2 is a name applied, generally with some admixture of and 5) hairs, sessile or contempt, to members of the Roman Church. Of stalked, arising from itself, it implies nothing more than that they are the summit of the adherents of the pope; but in its popular use it fruit, and is pro includes all the distinctive doctrines of Roman duced by a developCatholics, and especially those which are supposed ment of the tube to be peculiarly cherished by the supporters of the and limb of the perIts papal authority. It is therefore in many cases held sistent calyx. to be synonymous with the profession of the object appears to be extremest opinions permitted in the Church of to waft the ripened Rome, and even those which are popularly regarded seed to the new situation in which it is to grow. as superstitious. Understood literally, no consistent Thistle-down is the pappus of the thistle. The pappus Roman Catholic would disclaim it; but in the is sometimes represented by mere teeth or scales. imputed signification explained above, it is held to

be offensive.

PAPPENHEIM, GOTTFRIED HEINRICH, COUNT VON, an imperial general of great note in the Thirty Years' War, was born at Pappenheim, in Middle Franconia, Bavaria, 29th May 1594, of a very ancient Swabian family, in which the dignity

PA'PPUS, in Botany, an appendage of the fruit of plants belonging to certain natural orders, of which the great natural order Composita is the chief.

Pappus:

1 and 2, sessile; 3, scaled ko; 4 and 5, stalked.

PAPPUS of Alexandria, one of the later Greek geometers, of whose history nothing is known; he is said by Suidas to have lived during the reign of Theodosius the Great, emperor of the East (379-395). Some writers are of opinion that he lived two centuries earlier, but the former is much the more probable opinion. The chief work of P.

PAPPUS-PAPUA.