PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH IN IRELAND-PRESCOTT.

not increased in like proportion. In 1840, a union took place of the Irish Presbyterian Church forming the Synod of Ulster, and the Secession Church in Ireland, an offshoot of the Scottish Secession Church, which then reckoned 141 congregations in the north of Ireland. The Irish Presbyterian Church now consists of about 600 congregations, and has not only displayed much zeal for the advancement of Protestantism in Ireland, but also of Christianity in other parts of the world, and supports a very successful mission in Guzerat.

2000 ministers in England and Wales resigned their benefices, or submitted to be ejected from them, for conscience' sake. The first Nonconformists (q. v.) were mostly Presbyterians, but a small minority of Independents among them prevented the institution of a regular Presbyterian system, and the consequence was that the Nonconformists of England became in general practically Independent. Antinomianism and Arminianism soon appeared among them, and were followed by Socinianism or Unitarianism to such an extent, that the name Presbyterian became synonymous in PRESBYTERY, the space in the choir of a church England with Socinian or Unitarian; old endow-in which the high altar is placed; the name is somements, legacies of Presbyterians, being in many times extended to the whole choir. instances enjoyed by Unitarians. Meanwhile, there existed in England a few congregations connected with the Church of Scotland and with the Scottish Secession Church; and these were formed into churches, connected more or less intimately with the Scottish Presbyterian churches, to which other English congregations allied themselves. Of late, the Presbyterians of England have shewn a strong inclination to dissociate themselves from the Presbyterian churches of Scotland, of which they assert a complete independence. This is particularly the case with the Synod of the Presbyterian Church in England,' the most intimate relations of which, however, are with the Free Church of Scotland, and which reckons a number of presbyteries in different parts of England, and has a theological college in London, and missions in China and elsewhere.

PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH IN IRELAND. The Irish Presbyterian Church originated in the settlement of Ulster by Scottish colonists during the reign of James I. Scottish ministers carried over to Ireland their peculiar views, and after various struggles, a Presbyterian church was founded by the formation of a presbytery at Carrickfergus on 10th June 1642. The Presbyterian population of Ulster was greatly increased in number by immigration from Scotland about the middle of the 17th c.; and notwithstanding many difficulties, from the opposition of prelates and of the civil rower, the church continued to increase. It is a curious fact that the Presbyterian ministers received a pension from government, under Charles II., in 1672, which Regium Donum (q. v.), however, was not regularly paid, and soon ceased to be expected by the Presbyterian ministers. In the reign of William, the Regium Donum was augmented, although only to the paltry amount in all of £1200 a year. The sum has since, however, been repeatedly augmented, and is now £70 for each minister. A seminary for the education of ministers was also erected at Killaleagh. In 1710, the synod of the Presbyterian Church resolved to institute the preaching of the gospel to the Irish in their own language. During this period of its history, the Irish Presbyterian Church experienced the utmost opposition from the High Church party. Afterwards, dissensions sprung up within it, and these with reference to the most important doctrines. A body opposed to the doctrine of the Westminster Confession of Faith was organised as the Presbytery of Antrim. But the Irish Presbyterian Church itself became to a large extent Arian or Unitarian. The Regium Donum was augmented in 1792, and again in 1803, and discontinued in 1869, having been valued at 14 years' purchase, and a capital sum paid over therefor. In 1830, a separation took place from the Arians, who then formed the Remonstrant Synod of Ulster, Arian views having become very prevalent among the Presbyterians of Ireland. But since that date, the Irish Presbyterian Church has continued to ncrease, and the Remonstrant or Arian body has

PRESBYTERY, in Scotch Law, is an ecclesi. astical division of the country, as well as a court. In its local sense, it includes a combination of parishes, varying from four to thirty, and the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland has power to vary the size. See SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF.

At

PRE'SCOT, a manufacturing and market-town of Lancashire, 8 miles east of Liverpool. Huyton, 14 miles distant, there is a station on the London and North-western Railway. P. has long been well known for its manufactures of watchtools, watch-movements, small files, &c. Potteries are in operation in the vicinity. Pop. (1851), 7393; 6066; (1871) 5990.

PRESCOTT, WILLIAM HICKLING, LL.D., American historian, son of a distinguished lawyer and statesman, and grandson of Colonel William Prescott, an officer of the Revolution, was born at Salem, Massachusetts, on May 4, 1796. He entered Harvard College in 1811, and graduated in 1814. During his college course, he had one eye blinded by a piece of bread playfully thrown by a fellowstudent, and his studies so affected the other, that he was sent abroad for his health, and travelled in England, France, and Italy. On his return to America, he married, and abandoned the study of law for literature. In 1819, he determined to devote ten years to study, and the succeeding ten to composition. He contributed, however, several papers to the North American Review, collected in his Miscellanies. In 1825, he was engaged in the study of Spanish literature, and selected materials for his History of Ferdinand and Isabella. While engaged in this work, his sight failed, and, with the aid of a reader who knew no Spanish, he went through the seven quarto volumes of Mariana's History. After ten years of painful labour, his work was made ready for the press, and a few copies struck off for his friends, whose warm approval secured its publication in 1837 (3 vols. 8vo, Boston and London). It met with immediate success, and was translated into French, Spanish, and German. He next devoted six years to the History of the Conquest of Mexico (3 vols., 1843, London and New York); and four years to the Conquest of Peru (2 vols., 1847). These careful, elaborate, and charmingly written works made for him a high reputation. He was chosen corresponding member of the French Insti tute; and, on his visit to Europe in 1850, he was received with the highest distinction. In 1855, he published two volumes of his History of Philip II., and a third volume in 1858, but left it unfinished. He died at Boston, January 28, 1859. Mr Prescott was an elegant scholar and writer, a man of a cheerful humour and affectionate character, methodical in his habits, and persevering in his pursuita He walked five miles regularly every day, com posing as he walked. He devoted five hours to literary labour, two hours to novel-reading, for the refreshment of his mind-Scott, Dickens, Dumas, and Sue being his favourite authors. He gave one

PRESCRIPTION.

PRESCRIPTION is the term applied to the written direction or receipt given by the physician or surgeon to the chemist for the preparation of a medicinal substance suitable to a special case. In prescribing, the medical practitioner may either order an officinal or an extemporaneous compound. Officinal compounds (or preparations, as they are frequently termed) are those for which formulæ are introduced into the national pharmacopoeias, and are therefore supposed to be always at hand in the laboratory of the dispensing chemist (such, for example, as Mistura Ferri Composita, Pulvis Ipecacuanha Compositus, Confectio Aromatica, &c.); while extemporaneous compounds are those which are devised on the instant with the view of meeting the various peculiarities which almost every case of disease presents. 'Too much importance, as Dr Paris very truly observes, cannot be assigned to the art that thus enables the physician to adapt and graduate a powerful remedy to each particular case by a prompt and accurate prescription. If he prescribes upon truly scientific principles, he will rarely, in the course of his practice, compose two formula that shall in every respect be perfectly similar, for the plain reason, that he will never meet with two cases exactly alike.'-Pharmacologia, 9th ed., 1843, p. 374.

tenth of his ample income in charity, and divided increasing the flow of fluids into the intestine, the his time between his winter mansion in Boston, a purgative action will be increased and quickened, summer residence at Nahant, and a farmhouse, and all griping will be avoided. A combination of where he spent the autumn. In his large library, foxglove, squill, and blue pill or calomel will act with the light carefully regulated for his imperfect much more powerfully as a diuretic than any one vision, he wrote with a stylus each day what he of the substances taken alone; and they probably had composed, which was then copied, read over, all act in different ways on the system. The fourth and carefully corrected. His life, by George object is usually attained by chemical decomposition. Ticknor, was published in 1864. The activity of the Mistura Ferri Composita is due to the carbonate of iron which it contains, and which is yielded by the double decomposition of the two ingredients of the mixture, sulphate of iron and carbonate of potash. By prescribing a mixture of solution of iodide of potassium and corrosive sublimate, we obtain an extemporaneous formation of biniodide of mercury. The Black Wash (see LINIMENTS) owes its active ingredient to the decomposition of calomel by lime-water. In some cases, where no chemical action is apparent or probable, a mixture of two or more drugs seems to modify the physiological effect of each ingredient. For example, Dover's Powder contains as its active ingredients ipecacuanha and opium, and yet in well-regulated doses it neither exhibits the nauseating properties of the former, nor the narcotic influence of the latter substance. The fifth object, the selection of the most eligible form of the remedy, is of extreme importance. The physician here has to determine whether he shall prescribe his remedy in the form of pill, powder, or mixture; whether he shall administer it as an injection into the lower bowel; whether the patient shall (in certain cases) inhale it; &c. As a general rule, we should accom. modate the form and flavour of our remedies, provided we do not sacrifice their virtues, to the taste of the patient, who usually prefers pills to draughts or powders. The unpleasant taste of many medicines which must be given in the fluid form may often be obviated by the skill of the prescriber. Castor oil, cod-liver oil, and copaiba are most easily taken on the surface of orange wine, or water containing a bitter tincture, care being taken to moisten with water the edge or rim of the glass at the part applied to the mouth. The taste of solution of potash and of lime-water is best covered with milk; and the disagreeable flavour of senna is said to be concealed if its infusion is made with strong

The author whom we have just quoted, and who is the highest English authority on the subject, lays down five objects which the physician should have in view in the construction of an extemporaneous formula or prescription. They are: 1. To promote the action of the principal medicine (or, as he terms it, the basis) of a formula. 2. To correct the operation of the basis. 3. To obtain the joint operation of two or more medicines which act in totally different ways. 4. To obtain a new and active remedy not afforded by any single substance, 5. To select an eligible form.

The first object may be attained (a) by combining different preparations of the same substance, as, for example, tincture of senna with infusion of senna in the English Black Draught; or (b) by combining different substances of a similar action, as, for example, opium with hyoscyamus or conium; or sulphate of magnesia with the preparations of senna; or quinine with the preparations of iron. The second object may be obtained in various ways. For example, the addition of extract of hyoscyamus to the compound extract of colocynth renders the purgative action of the latter much less griping, but not less efficacious; the addition of dilute sulphuric acid to a solution of sulphate of magnesia renders that purgative salt less liable to gripe, and makes it sit easier on the stomach; and extract of elaterium, if given in hot brandy and water, acts equally powerfully as a hydragogue cathartic without causing the depression of the vital powers, which it often occasions if given alone. As an illustration of a mode of attaining the third object, we may refer to the operation of purgatives and of diuretics. If we administer a purgative which acts mainly in increasing the peristaltic motion of the intestines, their contents will be urged forward and evacuated, but the operation will be slow and difficult, and probably be accompanied with griping; but if we combine this medicine with one which acts by

tea.

In conclusion, it may be remarked that in this country it is the custom to write prescriptions in the Latin language, to abbreviate well-known words, to use symbols for weights and measures, and to commence each prescription with the symbol R, which signifies Recipe, take. As an illustration, we append a prescription for a tonic draught:

(Name of Patient.)

B Infus. Calumbæ, f. Zix
Tinct. Calumbæ, f. Zi
Acid. Sulph. Dilut, mx
Syrup. Aurant., f. 3iss

M. Fiat Haustus ter quotidie sumendus.
Date (in Latin).
(Initials or name of prescriter.)

PRESCRIPTION, in Law, is the limit of time within which one may acquire certain legal rights, by reason of the want of vindication by some other person of such rights, and putting in force his legal remedies. In England, however, it has a limited meaning, confined to a certain class of rights relating to lands, such as rights of way, of water-course, of fishing, shooting, &c.; while in Scotland, it is a general term, applicable to all legal rights and to real property; and hence prescription in Scotland corresponds to prescription, plus Limitation (q. v.), in England. Prescription in England is thus a

all circumstances.

PRESENTATION-PRESERVES, PRESERVED PROVISIONS.

secession of many ministers and people from the Established Church, and to the formation of a new dissenting church, called the Free Church (q. v.). The law is now settled that it is the presbytery, and not the people, who are to judge of the reasonableness of any objections made to the presentee, for which purpose, reasons and objections are heard on both sides, and a wide discretion is exercised by the presbytery. If the presbytery dismiss the objections, they then proceed to the trial and Induction (q. v.) of the presentee.

PRESE'NTMENT is, in English Law, the formal representation made by a grand-jury of the finding of an indictment; by churchwardens to the ordinary of the state of the parish; by the Court of Quarter Sessions of the fact of the disrepair of a bridge, &c. the formal demand made by the creditor to the debtor, Presentment, with reference to bills of exchange, is who is primarily liable, calling upon him to accept the bill or to pay it. If the bill is not paid, then notice of dishonour must be sent to the other parties secondarily liable, who are then bound. See BILLS OF EXCHANGE.

mode of acquiring a legal right, incident to land, by the mere force of claiming and exercising it, without dispute, for a certain length of time. Thus, if a neighbouring owner has for 30 years, without interruption, actually enjoyed a right of common, such as pasture, fishery, shooting, &c., over another's lands, he will be entitled to it as a legal right for ever after, unless in certain exceptional cases; and if he has enjoyed it for 60 years, his title for ever after cannot be defeated. So, if a person has for 20 years enjoyed, without interruption, a right of way, or of watercourse, or of watering cattle, and similar Easements (q. v.) on another's lands, he will be entitled, for ever thereafter, to enjoy these, except in a few exceptional cases; and if the enjoyment has been for 40 years, he is entitled in So, if a person whose house adjoins another's lands, and whose windows open upon such land, has enjoyed the light coming to these windows for 20 years, he can for ever thereafter prevent his neighbour from building on his land, and thereby darkening such lights. In Scotland, prescription includes such rights as have been already mentioned, and also the other substantive rights of property. With respect to servitudes, such as right of way, water-course, fuel, feal, and divot, the right can be gained by the enjoyment for 40 years. Prescription is divided into positive and negative. By the positive prescription, whenever one enjoys lands for 40 years, and can shew an infeftment, or a series of infeftments, during such time, though no previous title at the commencement of such period, such person obtains a right to the property. This enactment applies to all kinds of heritable subjects, including leases and servitudes, which require no infeftment, and as to which mere the fruit is simply boiled with from one-half to possession for 40 years, without interruption, will give the right. By the negative prescription of 40 years, rights are cut off, unless sued for within that period as a debt due on a heritable bond, and on all contracts whatever. Servitudes are also lost by the lapse of 40 years without enjoyment. Besides these prescriptions, there are others, called the lesser prescriptions. Thus, there is a 20 years' or vicennial prescription, applicable to certain written contracts; a ten years' or decennial prescription, applicable to actions against tutors and curators; a seven years' or septennial prescription, applicable to actions against cautioners; a sexennial or six years' prescription, applicable to actions on bills of exchange; a quinquennial or five years' prescription, applicable to actions for arrears of rent and verbal contracts; a three years' or triennial prescription, applicable to actions on ordinary merchants' accounts, for servants' wages, rent due on a verbal lease, and for work done by workmen, attorneys, &c. With! regard to crimes, also. in Scotland but not in England, a 20 years' prescription applies, and no prosecution is competent after that period.

PRESENTATION is the act by which a patron of a living in the Established Church of Scotland appoints a minister; and it is so called because the presentee must be presented to the presbytery for inquiry into his qualifications, and for induction, if these are satisfactory. If the patron fail to present within six months, the right then devolves on the presbytery. When a presentee was objected to by the major part of the congregation, whether with or without reason, the General Assembly of the church formerly claimed the right to declare that he should not be inducted or entitled to the benefice. This declaration was contained in an act of Assembly, dated 1835, called the Veto Act. But after much litigation, it was decided by the courts of law that such Veto Act was ultra vires and void; and this decision led to a

PRESERVES, PRESERVED PROVISIONS, &c. Much variety is comprehended under these terms: the first is generally understood to mean fruits preserved with sugar or brandy; and the latter, such articles of animal or vegetable food as are used ordinarily, but which are preserved by any means for the convenience of carriage, and for use beyond the time they would remain uninjured by ordinary keeping. Fruits intended for confec tionary are preserved in four different ways: First, They may be preserved in the form of jam, in which

equal its weight of sugar. By this method, the fruit becomes broken, and the juice set free; but all is preserved, as the latter forms a thick syrup with the sugar. Such preserves can be kept, if well made, for several years, but are best used during the first winter. A second plan is to preserve only the juice, which, when carefully strained from the solid portions of the fruit, and boiled with a third or half its weight of refined sugar, constitutes the fruit-jellies of the cooks and confectioners. Another method is called candying, and consists in taking fruits whole or in pieces, and boiling them in a clear syrup previously prepared. In this way, they absorb the syrup, and are then dried by a gentle heat, which causes the sugar of the syrup to crystallise on the surface and through the substance of the preserved fruits, which retain their form, and much, if not all their colour. The remaining method is to carefully stew them in a weak syrup of refined sugar and water, so that they are rendered soft, but are not broken, then transferring them, with the syrup, to jars with well-prepared covers, to prevent evaporation; and adding pale brandy, equal in quan tity to the syrup, or the syrup may be strong and the brandy omitted. As a rule, only stone-fruit, such as peaches, plums, and cherries, is preserved in this way. Several fruits and vegetables, such as olives, cucumbers, cabbage, &c., are preserved for food in a saturated solution of salt and water poured in hot; others, in vinegar. See PICKLES.

But the most approved methods of preserving vegetable and animal substances for food-purposes, so as to be used as nearly as possible as if they were in the fresh state, is either to desiccate them, or to seal them in air-tight cases. The first method was introduced by M. Chollet of Paris in 1852, and patented in England in 1854. It was, and still is, chiefly applied to vegetables, and a few kinds. of fruit, such as apples and pears, which have a small amount of juice. By his method, M. Chollet

PRESES OF MEETING-PRESS, FREEDOM OF THE.

entirely removes all moisture from the vegetables, by drying either in a vacuum or by the aid of heated air, which reduces their bulk more than one-half. They are then compressed under powerful presses, which, beside rendering them extremely portable, also makes them less liable to absorb moisture from the atmosphere, which is very desirable, as they are very absorbent. In this way, both the colour and distinctive flavour of the vegetables are completely preserved, and mere soaking in water restores them almost precisely to their original condition. The introduction of this process has been of great benefit to voyagers, as it enables ships to carry a complete supply of vegetable provisions on the longest voyage.

The method of sealing cooked provisions in airtight metallic cases, which is now so largely in use, is of comparatively recent invention, and has only been brought into use during the present century. In 1810, Augustus de Heine took out a patent in Great Britain for preserving food in tin or other metal cases, by simply exhausting the air by means of an air-pump; but it was unsuccessful. It was followed by a number of others by various persons, all of which were more or less failures, until Wertheûner's patents, which were three in number, from 1839 to 1841. By his plan, the provisions of whatever kind are put into the metal cases, and closely packed, and the interstices filled in with water or other appropriate liquid, such as gravy in the case of flesh-food. The lids are then soldered on very securely; two small perforations are made in each lid, and the cases are set in a water-bath, in which muriate of lime is dissolved, and heat is applied until the whole boils, and the air is expelled through the small openings in the lids of the cases. When this is complete, which the operator knows by practice, the small holes are quickly soldered up, and the tins are removed from the bath. The muriate of lime is used because its solution can easily be maintained at a heat of 270° to 280° Fahr., without material evaporation. When required for use, it is usual to put the tin-case in a proper vessel, and cover it with water until it boils. The top is then removed by a knife made for the purpose, and the contents are turned out into a dish ready for the table. Henry Gunter, Stephen Goldner, and others patented plans similar in principle, but varying in the mode of applying it. Latterly, a large business of this kind has been successfully carried on by various British manufacturers, whose cases of preserved meats and soups are well known as an article of commerce. But the plan in use now is that just described. A very ingenious and scientific plan for preserving meat fresh was invented by Professor George Hamilton, of Cheshire. It consists in cutting the meat small, and putting it into jars of binoxide of nitrogen, which perfectly preserves its sweetness and ordinary appearance. A method of preserving vegetables in cans, extensively practiced in America, is by simply boiling them for a proper length of time, and transferring them to the cans or bottles, and sealing immediately.

The production of preserved food has greatly developed since 1865, and is due to a more perfect knowledge of the best processes. The consumption of canned and bottled peaches, tomatoes, &c., lias reached. an enormous amount in the United States.

PRESS, FREEDOM OF THE, the expression used to denote the absence of any authorised official restraint on publication. The press is an instrument well adapted for disturbing the functions of government, and committing injuries against reputation; and when its power as a political engine was first discovered, the European governments took it into their own hands, no one being allowed to print any work till it had obtained the sanction of the proper authorities. The clergy also, on behalf of the papal hierarchy, claimed a share in the censorship, where questions of religion were concerned. In England, at the Reformation, the control of the press came to be more completely centred in the crown than elsewhere, the ecclesiastical in addition to the secular department being vested in Henry VIII. as temporal head of the church. The Company of Stationers, who came to have the sole right to print, were servants of the government, subject to the control of the Star Chamber. The censorship of the press was enforced by the Long Parliament, and was re-established more rigorously at the Restoration. It was continued at the Revolution, and the statnte regulating it was renewed from time to time till 1693, when the Commons, by a special vote, struck it out of the list of temporary acts to be continued. Since that time, the censorship of the press has ceased to exist in Britain. But though there are no official restrictions on what shall and what shall not be published, the authors and publishers of criminal or injurious matter are amenable to the law of libel; and there are certain statutory requirements in force to enable them to be traced. The existing statutes which apply to all printed publica tions are 39 Geo. III. c. 79, amended by 51 Geo. IIL c. 65, and 2 and 3 Vict. c. 12. Every person who possesses a printing-press or types for printing, and every typefounder, must give notice to the clerk of the peace. Every person selling types must give an account of all persons to whom they are sold. Every person who prints anything for hire or reward must keep one copy at least of the matter printed, and write on it the name and place of abode of the person who employed him to print it. By statute 2 and 3 Vict. c. 12, every person who shall print any paper meant to be published, must print on the front of the paper, or on the first or last leaf, his name and usual place of business; and on failure to do so, he forfeits the sum of £5, which penalty can, however, be sued for only in name of the Attorney or Solicitor-general, or the Lord Advocate of Scotland. A few exceptions exist to the above requirement in the case of papers printed by parliament or government offices, engravings, auction lists, bank-notes, bills of lading, receipts for money, and a few other instances. The statutes affecting newspapers are 60 Geo. III. and 1 Geo. IV. c. 9, 2 Geo. IV. and 1 Will. IV. c. 73, and 6 and 7 The Extractum carnis (Extract of meat) of Profes- Will. IV. c. 76. The publisher of a newspaper must, sor Liebig is one of the most valuable of the prepara- under a penalty of £20, enter into a recognisance or tions of preserved food. It is made in South America, bond of £400 or £300, together with sureties to pay where the flesh of cattle, which are killed in masses for any fine that may be adjudged against him for pub the hide and tallow, would otherwise be entirely lost. lishing a blasphemous or seditious libel. Before Forty-five pounds of beef are reduced to one pound of publication, he must furnish the correct title of his extract, and of this one teaspoonful will make four newspaper, and the names and addresses of the bowls of soup. This has been largely consumed by printer, publisher, and (with certain restrictions) of the German armies in service, with the happiest re- the proprietors. At the end of every newspaper sults. Flour has been prepared by M. Touaillon, of must be printed the Christian name and surname of Paris, a process in which it is desiccated without being the printer and publisher. A copy must also be altered, and the gluten reduced unfermentably, but sent to the Stamp Office, authenticated so that it recovering its primitive elasticity on being wet. may be produced in evidence at any trial. The

PRESSING TO DEATH-PREVOST-PARADOL.

PREVOST-PARADOL, LUCIEN ANATOLE, a P., that is, Priest's Town, so-called, probably, distinguished French littérateur, born at Paris, 8th from the number of its religious edifices, the August 1829, studied at the College Bourbon and remains of some of which are still visible, is of high the Ecole Normale; and in 1851, obtained from the antiquity. It arose after the decline of Ribchester Académie Française the prize for eloquence, for his the Roman Riyodunum), now a village some miles Eloge de Bernardin de Saint-Pierre. In 1855, he higher up the Ribble. P. was partially destroyed was named to the chair of French Literature by the by Bruce in 1322; and after declaring for the king, Faculty of Aix; but in the following year resigned it was taken by the forces of parliament under it, and became one of the editors of the Journal General Fairfax. Here also ended the ill-fated Jaco- des Débats, to which he contributed a great numbite rising of 1715, when, after a brave resistance, ber of articles remarkable for their precision and