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connexion properly, we must return to the pro- the means of subsistence will be multiplied position with which we concluded our reason- and facilitated, as well as industry be excited by ing upon the subject; "that population is new rewards. When the greater plenty of mochiefly promoted by employment." Now of ney in circulation has produced an advance in employment, money is partly the indication, the price of provision, corresponding to the adand partly the cause. The only way in which vanced price of labour, its effect ceases. The money regularly and spontaneously flows into labourer no longer gains any thing by the ina country, is in return for the goods that are crease of his wages. It is not, therefore, the sent out of it, or the work that is performed quantity of specie collected into a country, but by it; and the only way in which money is re-the continual increase of that quantity, from ained in a country, is by the country's sup-which the advantage arises to employment and plying, in a great measure, its own consump- population. It is only the accession of money tion of manufactures. Consequently, the quan- which produces the effect, and it is only by tity of money found in a country, denotes the money constantly flowing into a country that amount of labour and employment: but still, the effect can be constant. Now whatever employment, not money, is the cause of po- consequence arises to the country from the inpulation; the accumulation of money being flux of money, the contrary may be expected merely a collateral effect of the same cause, or to follow from the diminution of its quantity: a circumstance which accompanies the exist- and accordingly we find, that whatever cause ence, and measures the operation, of that cause. drains off the specie of a country, faster than And this is true of money, only whilst it is the streams which feed it can supply, not onacquired by the industry of the inhabitants. ly impoverishes the country, but depopulates The treasures which belong to a country by it. The knowledge and experience of this ef. the possession of mines, or by the exaction of fect have given occasion to a phrase which octribute from foreign dependencies, afford no curs in almost every discourse upon commerce conclusion concerning the state of population. or politics. The balance of trade with any foThe influx from these sources may be im- reign nation is said to be against or in favour mense, and yet the country remain poor and of a country, simply as it tends to carry mo ill-peopled; of which we see an egregious ex-ney out, or bring it in: that is, according a ample in the condition of Spain, since the ac- the price of the imports exceeds or falls short quisition of its South-American dominions. of the price of the exports: so invariably is But, secondly, money may become also a the increase or diminution of the specie of a real and an operative cause of population, by act-country regarded as a test of the public ading as a stimulus to industry, and by facilitating vantage or detriment which arises from any the means of subsistence. The ease of subsis- branch of its commerce. tence, and the encouragement of industry, de- IV. TAXATION.-As taxes take nothing pend neither upon the price of labour, nor up-out of a country; as they do not diminish the on the price of provision, but upon the pro- public stock, only vary the distribution of it; portion which one bears to the other. Now they are not necessarily prejudicial to populathe influx of money into a country, naturally tion. If the state exact money from certain tends to advance this proportion; that is, eve-members of the community, she dispenses it ry fresh accession of money raises the price of also amongst other members of the same com labour before it raises the price of provision. munity. They who contribute to the revenue, When money is brought from abroad, the per- and they who are supported or benefited by sons, be they who they will, into whose hands the expenses of government, are to be placed it first arrives, do not buy up provision with one against the other; and whilst what the it, but apply it to the purchase and payment subsistence of one part is profited by receivof labour. If the state receives it, the state ing, compensates for what that of the other dispenses what it receives amongst soldiers, suffers by paying, the common fund of the sosailors, artificers, engineers, shipwrights, work-ciety is not lessened. This is true: but it men;-if private persons bring home treasures must be observed, that although the sum disof gold and silver they usually expend them tributed by the state be always equal to the in the building of houses, the improvement of sum collected from the people, yet the gain and estates, the purchase of furniture, dress, equi- loss to the means of subsistence may be very page, in articles of luxury or splendor :-if unequal; and the balance will remain on the the merchant be enriched by returns of his fo- wrong or the right side of the account, accorreign commerce, he applies his increased capi-ding as the money passes by taxation from the tal to the enlargement of his business at home. industrious to the idle, from the many to the The money ere long comes to market for pro- few, from those who want to those who abound, vision; but it comes thither through the hands or in a contrary direction. For instance: a of the manufacturer, the artist, the husband- tax upon coaches, to be laid out in the repair man, and labourer. Its effect, therefore, up- of roads, would probably improve the populaon the price of art and labour, will precede its tion of a neighbourhood; a tax upon cottages, effect upon the price of provision; and during to be ultimately expended in the purchase and the interval between one effect and the other support of coaches, would certainly diminish

it. In like manner, a tax upon wine or tea | obstruct subsistence; and the minutest degree distributed in bounties to fishermen or hus-of this obstruction will be felt in the formation bandmen, would augment the provision of a of families. The example, indeed, forms an country; a tax upon fisheries and husbandry, extreme case; the evil is magnified, in order however indirect or concealed, to be convert- to render its operation distinct and visible. In ed, when raised, to the procuring of wine or real life, families may not be broken up, or tea for the idle and opulent, would naturally forced from their habitation, houses be quitted, impair the public stock. The effect, there- or countries suddenly deserted, in consequence fore, of taxes, upon the means of subsistence, of any new imposition whatever; but marriadepends not so much upon the amount of the ges will become gradually less frequent. sum levied, as upon the object of the tax and| It seems necessary, however, to distinguish the application. Taxes likewise may be so ad- between the operation of a new tax, and the justed as to conduce to the restraint of luxu-effect of taxes which have been long estabry, and the correction of vice; to the encou-lished. In the course of circulation, the moragement of industry, trade, agriculture, and ney may flow back to the hands from which it marriage. Taxes thus contrived, become re- was taken. The proportion between the sup. wards and penalties; not only sources of re-ply and the expense of subsistence, which had venue, but instruments of police. Vices in- been disturbed by the tax, may at length redeed themselves cannot be taxed, without cover itself again. In the instance just now holding forth such a conditional toleration of stated, the addition of a tenth family to the them as to destroy men's perception of their neighbourhood, or the enlarged expenses of guilt; a tax comes to be considered as a com- one of the nine, may, in some shape or other, mutation: the materials, however, and incen- so advance the profits, or increase the employtives of vice, may. Although, for instance, ment, of the rest, as to make full restitution drunkenness would be, on this account, an for the share of their property of which it deunfit object of taxation, yet public houses and prives them; or, what is more likely to hapspiritous liquors are very properly subjected | pen, a reduction may take place in their mode to heavy imposts. of living, suited to the abridgment of their incomes. Yet still the ultimate and permanent effect of taxation, though distinguishable from the impression of a new tax, is generally ad

Nevertheless, although it may be true that taxes cannot be pronounced to be detrimental to population, by an absolute necessity in their nature; and though, under some modifica-verse to population. The proportion above tions, and when urged only to a certain extent, spoken of, can only be restored by one side or they may even operate in favour of it; yet it other of the following alternative: by the peowill be found, in a great plurality of instances, ple either contracting their wants, which at that their tendency is noxious. Let it be sup- the same time diminishes consumption and posed that nine families inhabit a neighbour- employment; or by raising the price of labour, hood, each possessing barely the means of sub- which necessarily adding to the price of the sistence, or of that mode of subsistence which productions and manufactures of the country, custom hath established amongst them; let checks their sale at foreign markets. A naa tenth family be quartered upon these, to be tion which is burthened with taxes, must always supported by a tax raised from the nine; or be undersold by a nation which is free from rather, let one of the nine have his income them, unless the difference be made up by augmented by a similar deduction from the some singular advantage of climate, soil, skill, incomes of the rest; in either of these cases, or industry. This quality belongs to all tax it is evident that the whole district would be es which affect the mass of the community, broken up for as the entire income of each even when imposed upon the properest objects, is supposed to be barely sufficient for the es- and applied to the fairest purposes. But tablishment which it maintains, a deduction of abuses are inseparable from the disposal of any part destroys that establishment. Now public money. As governments are usually it is no answer to this objection, it is no apo-administered, the produce of public taxes is logy for the grievance, to say, that nothing expended upon a train of gentry, in the main. is taken out of the neighbourhood; that the taining of pomp, or in the purchase of influstock is not diminished: the mischief is done ence. The conversion of property which taxes by deranging the distribution. Nor, again, effectuate, when they are employed in this is the luxury of one family, or even the main-manner, is attended with obvious evils. It tenance of an additional family, a recompense takes from the industrious, to give to the idle; to the country for the ruin of nine others.it increases the number of the latter; it tends Nor, lastly, will it alter the effect though it may conceal the cause, that the contribution, instead of being levied directly upon each day's wages, is mixed up in the price of some article of constant use and consumption, as in a tax upon candles, malt, leather, or fuel. This example illustrates the tendency of taxes to

to accumulation; it sacrifices the conveniency of many to the luxury of a few; it makes no return to the people, from whom the tax i drawn, that is satisfactory or intelligible; it encourages no activity which is useful or pro. ductive.

The sum to be raised being settled, a wise

V. EXPORTATION OF BREAD-CORN.-Nothing seems to have a more positive tendency to reduce the number of the people, than the sending abroad part of the provision by which they are maintained; yet this has been the policy of legislators very studious of the improvement of their country. In order to reconcile our. selves to a practice which appears to militate with the chief interest, that is, with the population of the country that adopts it, we must be reminded of a maxim which belongs to the productions both of nature and art, "that it

statesman will contrive his taxes principally of acquiring wealth without industry, or ever with a view to their effect upon population; of subsisting in idlenessthat is, he will so adjust them as to give the least possible obstruction to those means of subistence by which the mass of the community is maintained. We are accustomed to an opinion, that a tax, to be just, ought to be accurately proportioned to the circumstances of the persons who pay it. But upon what, it might be asked, is this opinion founded; unless it could be shown that such a proportion interferes the least with the general conveniency of subsistence? Whereas I should rather believe, that a tax, constructed with a view to that conveniency, ought to rise upon is impossible to have enough without a suthe different classes of the community, in a "perfluity." The point of sufficiency cannot, much higher ratio than the simple proportion in any case, be so exactly hit upon, as to have of their incomes. The point to be regarded nothing to spare, yet never to want. This is is, not what men have, but what they can peculiarly true of bread-corn, of which the anspare; and it is evident that a man who pos- nual increase is extremely variable. As it is sesses a thousand pounds a-year, can more necessary that the crop be adequate to the coneasily give up a hundred, than a man with a sumption in a year of scarcity, it must, of conhundred pounds a-year can part with ten; sequence, greatly exceed it in a year of plenty. that is, those habits of life which are reasona- A redundancy therefore will occasionally arise ble and innocent, and upon the ability to con- from the very care that is taken to secure the tinue which the formation of families depends, people against the danger of want; and it is will be much less affected by the one deduc-manifest that the exportation of this reduntion than the other: it is still more evident, dancy subtracts nothing from the number that that a man of a hundred pounds a-year would can regularly be maintained by the produce of not be so much distressed in his subsistence. the soil. Moreover, as the exportation of corn, by a demand from him of ten pounds, as a under these circumstances, is attended with no man of ten pounds a-year would be by the loss direct injury topopulation, so the benefits which of one: to which we must add, that the po- indirectly arise to population from foreign pulation of every country being replenished commerce, belong to this, in common with by the marriages of the lowest ranks of the other species of trade; together with the pesociety, their accommodation and relief become culiar advantage of presenting a constant inof more importance to the state, than the con- citement to the skill and industry of the hus veniency of any higher but less numerous or- bandman, by the promise of a certain sale and der of its citizens. But whatever be the pro-an adequate price, under every contingency of portion which public expediency directs, whe-season and produce. There is another situather the simple, the duplicate, or any higher tion, in which corn may not only be exported, or intermediate proportion of men's incomes, but in which the people can thrive by no other it can never be attained by any single tax; means; that is, of a newly settled country, with as no single object of taxation can be found, a fertile soil. The exportation of a large prowhich measures the ability of the subject with portion of the corn which a country produces, sufficient generality and exactness. It is on- proves, it is true, that the inhabitants have not ly by a system and variety of taxes, mutually yet attained to the number which the country is balancing and equalising one another, that a capable of maintaining: but it does not prove due proportion can be preserved. For in- but that they may be hastening to this limit stance: if a tax upon lands press with great- with the utmost practicable celerity, which is er hardship upon those who live in the coun- the perfection to be sought for in a young estry, it may be properly counterpoised by a tax tablishment. In all cases except these two, upon the rent of houses, which will affect prin- and in the former of them to any greater de ripally the inhabitants of large towns. Dis-gree than what is necessary to take off occatinctions may also be framed in some taxes, sional redundancies, the exportation of corn is which shall allow abatements or exemptions either itself noxious to population, or argues a to married persons; to the parents of a cer- defect of population arising from some other tain number of legitimate children; to impro- cause. vers of the soil; to particular modes of culti- VI. ABRIDGEMENT OF LABOUR.-It has vation, as to tillage in preference to pastur-long been made a question, whether those meage; and in general to that industry which chanical contrivances which abridge labour, by is immediately productive, in preference to performing the same work by fewer hands, be that which is only instrumental; but above all, which may leave the heaviest part of the burthen upon the methods, whatever they he,

detrimental or not to the population of a country. From what has been delivered in preceding parts of the present chapter, it will be

nature capable of contributing to the support and advancement of population. I say how far; for, as in many subjects, so especially in those which relate to commerce, to plenty, to riches, and to the number of people, more is wont to be expected from laws, than laws can do. Laws can only imperfectly restrain that dissoluteness of manners, which, by dimi

evident that this question is equivalent to an- | formed, how far regulations of law are in their other, whether such contrivances diminish or not the quantity of employment. The first and most obvious effect undoubtedly is this; because, if one man be made to do what three men did before, two are immediately discharged: but if, by some more general and remoter consequence, they increase the demand for work, or, what is the same thing, prevent the diminution of that demand, in a greater propor-nishing the frequency of marriages, impairs tion than they contract the number of hands the very source of population. Laws cannot by which it is performed, the quantity of em- regulate the wants of mankind, their mode of ployment, upon the whole, will gain an addi- living, or their desire of those superfluities tion. Upon which principle it may be observ- which fashion, more irresistible than laws, has ed, first, that whenever a mechanical inven- once introduced into general usage; or, in tion succeeds in one place, it is necessary that other words, has erected into necessaries of it be imitated in every other, where the same life Laws cannot induce men to enter into manufacture is carried on; for, it is manifest, marriages, when the expenses of a family must that he who has the benefit of a conciser opera-deprive them of that system of accommodation tion, will soon outvie and undersell a compe- to which they have habituated their expectatitor who continues to use a more circuitous la- tions. Laws, by their protection, by assuring bour. It is also true, in the second place, that to the labourer the fruit and profit of his la whoever first discover or adopt a mechanical bour, may help to make a people industrious; improvement, will, for some time, draw to but without industry, the laws cannot provide themselves an increase of employment; and either subsistence or employment; laws canthat this preference may continue even after not make corn grow without toil and care, or the improvement has become general; for, in trade flourish without art and diligence. In every kind of trade, it is not only a great but spite of all laws, the expert, laborious, honest permanent advantage, to have once pre-occu- workman, will be employed, in preference to pied the public reputation. Thirdly, after eve- the lazy, the unskilful, the fraudulent, and ry superiority which might be derived from evasive: and this is not more true of two inthe possession of a secret, has ceased, it may habitants of the same village, than it is of the be well questioned whether even then any loss people of two different countries, which com. can accrue to employment. The same money municate either with each other, or with the will be spared to the same article still. Where- rest of the world. The natural basis of trade fore, in proportion as the article can be afford-is rivalship of quality and price; or, which is ed at a lower price, by reason of an easier or the same thing, of skill and industry. Eve shorter process in the manufacture, it will ei-ry attempt to force trade by operation of law, ther grow into more general use, or an im- that is, by compelling persons to buy goods at provement will take place in the quality and one market, which they can obtain cheaper fabric, which will demand a proportionable ad- and better from another, is sure to be either dition of hands. The number of persons em- eluded by the quick-sightedness and incessant ployed in the manufactory of stockings, has activity of private interest, or to be frustranot, I apprehend, decreased since the invented by retaliation. One half of the commertion of stocking-mills. The amount of what is expended upon the article, after subtracting from it the price of the raw material, and consequently what is paid for work in this branch of our manufactories, is not less than it was before. Goods of a finer texture are worn in Next to the indispensible requisites of inthe place of coarser. This is the change which internal peace and security, the chief advanthe invention has produced; and which com- tage which can be derived to population from pensates to the manufactory for every other in- the interference of law, appears to me to conconveniency. Add to which, that in the above, sist in the encouragement of agriculture. This, and in almost every instance, an improvement at least, is the direct way of increasing the which conduces to the recommendation of a number of the people: every other mode bemanufactory, either by the cheapness or the ing effectual only by its influence upon this. quality of the goods, draws up after it many de- Now the principal expedient by which such a pendent employments, in which no abbrevia-purpose can be promoted, is to adjust the laws tion has taken place.

cial laws of many states are calculated merely to counteract the restrictions which have been imposed by other states. Perhaps the only way in which the interposition of law is salutary in trade, is in the prevention of frauds.

of property, as nearly as possible, to the two following rules: first," to give to the occupier "all the power over the soil, which is necesFrom the reasoning that has been pursued, "sary for its perfect cultivation ;"-secondand the various considerations suggested in this ly, "to assign the whole profit of every im. chapter, a judgment may, in some sort, be“ provement to the persons by whose ac

But, secondly, agriculture is discouraged by every constitution of landed property which lets in those, who have no concern in the improvement, to a participation of the profit. This objection is applicable to all such customs of manors as subject the proprietor, upon the death of the lord or tenant, or the alienation of the estate, to a fine apportioned to the improved value of the land. But of all institutions which are in this way ad verse to cultivation and improvement, none is so noxious as that of tithes. A claimant here enters into the produce, who contributed no assistance whatever to the production. When

“tivity it is carried on." What we call pro- | population, yet the enclosure of lands in til. perty in land, as hath been observed above, is lage, in order to convert them into pastures, power over it. Now it is indifferent to the is as generally hurtful. public in whose hands this power resides, if it be rightly used; it matters not to whom the land belongs, if it be well cultivated. When we lament that great estates are often united in the same hand, or complain that one man possesses what would be sufficient for a thousand, we suffer ourselves to be misled by words. The owner of ten thousand pounds a-year, consumes little more of the produce of the soil than the owner of ten pounds ayear. If the cultivation be equal, the estate in the hands of one great lord, affords subsistence and employment to the same number of persons as it would do if it were divided amongst a hundred proprietors. In like man-years, perhaps, of care and toil have matured ner we ought to judge of the effect upon the public interest, which may arise from lands being holden by the king, or by the subject; by private persons, or by corporations; by laymen, or ecclesiastics; in fee, or for life; by virtue of office, or in right of inheritance. I do not mean that these varieties make no difference, but I mean that all the difference they do make respects the cultivation of the lands which are so holden.

an improvement; when the husbandman sees new crops ripening to his skill and industry; the moment he is ready to put his sickle to the grain, he finds himself compelled to divide his harvest with a stranger. Tithes are a tax not only upon industry, but upon that industry which feeds mankind; upon that species of exertion which it is the aim of all wise laws to cherish and promote; and to uphold and excite which, composes, as we have seen, the There exist in this country, conditions of main benefit that the community receives from. tenure which condemn the land itself to per- the whole system of trade, and the success of petual sterility. Of this kind is the right of commerce. And, together with the more ge common, which precludes each proprietor from neral inconveniency that attends the exaction the improvement, or even the convenient oc- of tithes, there is this additional evil, in the cupation, of his estate, without (what seldom mode at least according to which they are colcan be obtained) the consent of many others. | lected at present, that they operate as a bounThis tenure is also usually embarrassed by ty upon pasturage. The burthen of the tax the interference of manorial claims, under falls with its chief, if not with its whole weight, which it often happens that the surface be- upon tillage; that is to say, upon that prelongs to one owner, and the soil to another; cise mode of cultivation, which, as hath been so that neither owner can stir a clod without shown above, it is the business of the state to the concurrence of his partner in the proper-relieve and remunerate, in preference to every ty. In many manors, the tenant is restrain- other. No measure of such extensive coned from granting leases beyond a short term cern appears to me so practicable, nor any sin. of years; which renders every plan of solid gle alteration so beneficial, as the conversion improvement impracticable. In these cases, of tithes into corn-rents. This commutation, the owner wants, what the first rule of ra- I am convinced, might be so adjusted, as to tional policy requires, "sufficient power over secure to the tithe-holder a complete and per"the soil for its perfect cultivation." This petual equivalent for his interest, and to leave power ought to be extended to him by some to industry its full operation, and entire reeasy and general law of enfranchisement, partition, and enclosure; which, though compulsory upon the lord, or the rest of the tenants, whilst it has in view the melioration of the soil, and tenders an equitable compensation for every right that it takes away, is neither more arbitrary, nor more dangerous to the stability of property, than that which is done in the construction of roads, bridges, embankments, navigable canals, and indeed in almost BECAUSE the Christian Scriptures describe every public work, in which private own-wars as what they are.-as crimes or judgers of land are obliged to accept that price ments, some have been led to believe that it for their property which an indifferent jury is unlawful for a Christian to bear arms. But may award. It may here, however, be pro- it should be remembered that it may be neper to observe, that although the enclosure of cessary for individuals to unite their force, wastes and pastures be generally beneficial to and for this end to resign themselves to che

ward.

CHAPTER XII

OF WAR, AND OF MILITARY ESTABLISH-
MENTS.