ALGERIA.

ALGERIA.

surrounding country; penetrated to Tekedempt-the of thirty members. In 1863, the Emperor Napoleon very stronghold of Abd-el-Kader himself-which announced that he was willing to give the colony a he laid in ashes; marched thence to Mascara, which new constitution, with a Chamber of Representawas also taken; and on all sides received the tives for provincial affairs: he also addressed a letter submission of the terrified Arabs. Even the hottest to the governor-general, in which he explained that period of the summer was made use of. Bugeaud A. was no colony in the strict sense of the word, bribed and seduced from their allegiance those but an Arabian kingdom; and that the natives had Arabs who were under the sway of Abd-el-Kader. the same right to protection as the colonists. In The autumn campaign was for the time decisive. 1864, however, strife again arose between the coloSaida, the last fortress belonging to the gallant nists and the Arabs; and it was only after several emir, was utterly destroyed, and now almost the engagements, during the months of April and May, entire country was subdued. Abd-el-Kader retired that peace was restored by the submission of the into Marocco, where he raised a new army, for conquered tribes. Pélissier having died in May his old one had been completely annihilated. He 1864, Marshal MacMahon was appointed to succeed was, however, defeated by General Bedeau, and him. In the following year the emperor himself again compelled to retreat into Marocco, from which, made a journey to A., and, on March 5, issued a however, he issued a second time, in the summer of proclamation, in which, although explaining to the 1842, and contrived to maintain a fierce but desultory Arabs that A. must continue to be united to France, warfare, for two or three years, aided by the Sultan he promised to maintain their nationality; and at of Marocco. At last, however, deserted by most the same time gave them assurance that they should of his followers, pursued by his late ally, and, in always remain in undisturbed possession of their fact, hemmed in on all sides, he was forced to territories. Yet these and other measures for consurrender to General Lamoricière, at the close of ciliating the Arabs were all in vain; for, shortly December 1847. See ABD-EL-KADER. after the emperor's return to France, insurrections broke out in the province of Oran and elsewhere. Si-Hamed, a native chief, with 12,000 horsemen at his command, began to harrass those tribes which remained in submission, until he was routed by Colonel Colomb of Geryville, and forced to escape into Sahara: after which, in the beginning of 1867, two expeditions, led by Colomb and Souis, succeeded in reducing to submission the other tribes which had revolted. In 1867 and 1868, a severe and general famine checked the military enterprises of the Arabs; and there was peace till 1870, when, the Franco-Prussian war having begun, the emperor found it necessary to withdraw to Europe the greater part of the forces in Africa. MacMahon's place was then taken by General Durieu, as interim governor-general; and the natives began to entertain hopes of freeing themselves from the yoke of France. Movements were begun in the provinces of Constantine and Oran, which it required all General Durieu's vigilance and activity to hold in check. After this, again, some disorder arose among the colonists themselves, who strongly desired the abolition of the military government a change which the new republican government at Paris soon gratified them by effecting. To Durieu's place was appointed a civil governor, and under him prefects for each of the three provinces. A council was formed-composed of the prefects, archbishop, commander of the army, and other members appointed by the French government-with which, in all important cases, the governor has to take counsel. The territory of the Sahara and adjoining districts remain under exclusively military rule.

The revolution of February 1848, somewhat disturbed the progress of conquest and subjugation in A. That superb race of mountaineers, the Kabyles, descendants of the ancient Numidians, and possessed of the same fiery and dauntless spirit, broke out into a new insurrection, which, however, was speedily quelled. The National Assembly now offered to the European population of A. to incorporate the country with the republic of France, and to grant it all the accompanying political privileges of a French province; but intelligent men of all parties acknowledged the uselessness and danger of this step. It was, therefore, simply declared to be a permanent possession of the republic. Four deputies from the colony were permitted to take a part in all discussions in the National Assembly on Algerian affairs. Meanwhile, the work of conquest, colonisation, and, in some respects, civilisation went on. The French troops penetrated into the far south, almost to the borders of Sahara, sternly reducing to obedience the desert tribes, who manifested a not unnatural antipathy to these inroads, and in some cases fiercely resisted the invaders. Various tribes of the Kabyles, too, opposed every attempt at organised taxation, and the imposition of civilised discipline; the result of which patriotic obstinacy was, a new campaign against them by the French general, Bugia. Fortune again declared for the invaders; but the most alarming insurrection was that excited by the Cherif Bou-zian, who fled for freedom to Zaatcha in the oases. The French pursued him thither; but were beaten, and had to retreat. Some months after, they returned, largely reinforced, and in spite of the broad belt of palm-trees which hindered their operations, and the wild and strenuous heroism of the besieged, the place was stormed and destroyed. The defenders all perished.

In 1853-1854, and again in 1856-1857, expeditions were organised against the Kabyles; though not altogether with the will of the colonists, who could not but recognise the great intelligence and industry displayed by that highland race. The struggle was sanguinary and barbarous on both sides, but the French at last subdued their enemies. For two years (1858-1860) the military government of A. was superseded by the institution of a special ministerial department for A. and the colonies, which was first of all intrusted to Prince Napoleon. In December 1860, however, a military government was re-instituted, and Marshal Pélissier made Governor-general, with a Vice-governor under him, a Director-general for Civil Affairs, and a Council

The French troops still stationed in A. consist of one 'corps d'armée,' numbering 60,000. It is said that the possession of A. has cost France the lives of 150,000 men, besides £120,000,000 in money. The revenue of A. is derived chiefly from indirect taxes, licences, and customs duties on imports. In 1875, it amounted to 52,386,955 francs, and the expenditure to 57,110,872 francs. The cost of maintaining the army, however, the outlay for public works, and other large sums disbursed-estimated in 1877 at 25,111,472 francs-are not included in the expenditure, being provided out of the French budget.

Since the subjugation of A., the French have conferred various benefits on the colonists and native tribes, not the least important of which has been the digging of Artesian wells (q. v.). In May 1856, a

boring' was commenced in an oasis of the Sahara or desert of the province of Constantine. A civil engineer, a sergeant of Spahis, and a detachment of

ALGHERO-ALGOA BAY.

soldiers of the Foreign Legion, succeeded in bringing while the former is almost wholly Moorish both in to light a splendid fountain or river, yielding not its edifices and inhabitants. The great centre of less than 4010 quarts of water per minute. The bustle and activity in A. is the Place Royale-a work was considered a miracle. From all quarters large oblong space in the centre of the town, planted the Arabs flocked to behold and enjoy it. The with orange and lime trees, and surrounded by houses native priests blessed it, naming it the Fountain of in the European style. Here may be found as Peace. Another well was termed the Fountain of motley a crowd as anywhere in the world, denizens of Benediction.' In the oasis of Sidi-Rached, unpro- all nations-Arabs, Moors, Jews, French, Spaniards, ductive for want of water, a well was dug, and at a Maltese, Germans, Italians, &c. The city is interdepth of 54 mètres, yielded 4300 quarts per minute. sected by two large parallel streets, Bab-el-Ouad and It is known as the Fountain of Gratitude,' and the Bab-azoun, running north and south for more than enthusiasm excited at its opening was boundless. half a mile. They are flanked by colonnades, but The idea of providing such wells has rightly been are very narrow, and therefore inconvenient for considered 'a stroke of strong political wisdom.' traffic; as promenades, however, nothing could The government has done service to the colonists be more agreeable. In 1833, A. had upwards of by encouraging the formation of banking-companies, 100 mosques and marabouts. The mosques are &c. In 1875 there were about 350 miles of railway divided into two classes the djamas, or principal in operation, consisting of three lines-viz., one from mosques, and the mesjids, or inferior mosques. The Algiers to Oran, one from the sea to Constantine, marabouts are the tombs and sanctuaries of saints. and one from Bona to the mines of Ain Mokra. A Everywhere A. wears the aspect of a rising colonial telegraph cable was laid in 1870 between Bona and city. Other towns in the province still retain their Marseille; and there are 5850 miles of inland tele- oriental character, with the exception of a few graphs, including branches into Tunis. military buildings; but the new town of A. might

It would be too much to affirm that the colonisa- deceive the traveller into the belief that he is still tion of A. has advanced rapidly. The French in Europe, were it not for the throng of swarthy government has acted neither very promptly nor faces he meets. The streets are regular, spacious, very liberally towards settlers; and the number of and elegant; some of them as handsome as the formalities which require to be gone through before Parisian Boulevards, and adorned with arcades. The one can properly secure the land which he has pur- shops, too, are occasionally very good. The houses chased, often disgusts the poor farmer. However, are in some instances five stories high, which, though great efforts have been made for the improvement it gives a massive and imposing appearance to the of agriculture: altogether, 5,139,136 acres are stated city, is yet a very perilous innovation in a place as being under cultivation; 413,112 acres being which has suffered dreadfully from earthquakes. cultivated by Europeans. The total exports of A. But perhaps greater interest attaches to the old amounted in 1875 to £5,756,000; the imports to Moorish town, which is connected with the new by £7,696,000. In 1875, 36,580 tons of alfa fibre or a steep, narrow, jagged-looking street called the esparto grass for making paper was exported, chiefly Casbah, leading down from the fortress of the deys. to Great Britain. A number of Mohammedan The houses are square, substantial, flat-roofed; rise schools for instruction in French and Arabic have irregularly one over the other; and have no winbeen established, and are regularly attended by dows, but only peep-holes, which are intended to pupils of both sexes, who learn to read and write exclude impertinent eyes, and are therefore fortified fluently in the French language, and to keep accounts. In Algiers itself there are several of these schools where the female children are taught sewing. Thus, although progress is slower than might have been anticipated, it is real, and its pace accelerating When fierce memories have been softened by time, and such atrocities as those of Dahra (q. v.) have been forgotten in the substantial blessings which an enlightened civilisation cannot fail to bestow, the presence of the French in A. will cease to be deplored by the natives.

ALGHERO, or ALGHERI, a seaport on the west coast of the island of Sardinia, 15 miles S. W. from Sassari. It is well defended towards the sea, being built on a rocky point, and surrounded by thick walls, but is commanded by some hills which overhang the town. A. has a cathedral, several convents, a college, and public schools. It exports wine, tobacco, anchovies, skins, coral, bones, &c. It was a favourite residence of Charles V., in whose time it belonged to Spain. Pop., 8000.

ALGIERS (Arabic, Al-jezira, the island), the capital of Algeria, was built about 935 A. D. by an Arab chief. It rises from the sea-shore up the sides of a precipitous hill in the form of an equilateral triangle. The apex is formed by the Casbah, the ancient fortress of the deys, which is 500 feet above the sea-level, and commands the whole town. The base is a mile in length. The present city may be regarded as divided into two parts: the old, or high town; and the new, or low town. With the exception of some mosques, the latter consists of wharfs, warehouses, government houses, squares, and streets, principally built and inhabited by the French;

with iron gratings instead of glass, so that the houses have a very prison-like appearance. Although the streets at first contrast unfavourably with those of Europe, on account of their narrowness, the coolness other inconveniences. The inhabitants have recourse which this secures soon reconciles the traveller to to their flat roofs or terraces in the evening, to enjoy the delicious sea-breeze. The French have introduced many useful reforms. There are conduits in every part of the city, public baths, coffee-houses, hotels, omnibuses, &c. The markets are held in the Squares the great amusement. The Arabs are passionately de Chartres, Mahon, and d'Isly. Horse-racing is fond of it. The French have also improved, at great expense and labour, the port, which was in a precarious condition. The town has supreme courts of justice, a chamber and tribunal of commerce, a college and schools, a Catholic cathedral and several churches, a French Protestant church, a synagogue, a bazaar for the exhibition of native industry, theatres, and banks.

A., which had been wretchedly misgoverned by a long succession of Turkish deys, fell into the hands of the French in 1830 (see ALGERIA), who swept away every trace of the ferocious despotism that had prevailed. The Turks withdrew in great numbers to Tunis and Alexandria. Pop. in 1872, 48,908. The trade of A. in 1873 in British vessels alone amounted in exports to £129,700; in imports to £140,220.

ALGO'A BAY, an extensive inlet at the east extremity of the south coast of Africa, being intersected by the parallel of Cape Town, from which it is distant about 8 degrees of longitude. Its anchorage is sheltered, excepting on the south-east, the holdingground being excellent. It receives two rivers, the

ALGONQUINS-ALI PASHA.

Sunday and the Baasher. At the mouth of the latter is Port Elizabeth. A. B. is the harbour of the eastern province, by far the most flourishing section of the colony; and it will ever be locally memorable as the landing-place of about 4000 souls in 1820, the first British emigration to this once Dutch possession. Since then, the trade of the bay has steadily and rapidly increased. See further, CAPE OF GOOD

HOPE.

red castle.' It is surrounded by a strong wall, more than a mile in circuit, and studded with towers. The towers on the north wall, which is defended by nature, were used as residences connected with the palace. One of them contains the famous Hall of the Ambassadors. The remains of the Moorish palace are called by the Spaniards the Casa Real. It was begun by Ibnu-l-ahmar, and continued by his successors (1248-1348). The portions still standALGONQUINS. The A. formed the most pro- ing are ranged round two oblong courts, one called minent of the three aboriginal races that the French the Court of the Fish-pond, the other the Court of found in the great basin of the St Lawrence. They the Lions. They consist of porticos, pillared halls, were then the lords not merely of the best part of cool chambers, small gardens, fountains, mosaic Canada, but of much adjacent territory to the north pavements, &c. The lightness and elegance of the and west. At the present day, the A., as well as columns and arches, and the richness of the ornathe Hurons and the Iroquois, exist, at least within mentation, are unsurpassed. The colouring is but the pale of settlement, only as the shadow of a little altered by time. The most characteristic parts mighty name, being chiefly confined to several of the Casa Real have been reproduced in the miserable villages, with hardly anything of civilisa-Alhambra Court' of the Crystal Palace at Sydention but its individual helplessness. This deplorable ham. A great part of the ancient palace was result, from whatever causes it may have arisen, is removed to make way for the palace begun by Charles certainly not to be imputed either to oppression or V., but never finished. It is long since any part of to indifference on the part of the French, who, polit- the Moorish palace was inhabited; but it is kept in ically, religiously, and socially, have always treated a state of preservation as a work of art, and as a the red man with consideration and humanity. On memorial of the tragic legend of the Abencerrages this interesting subject, see further under the general (q. v.). head of AMERICA.

A'LGUACIL, or ALGUAZIL (derived from the Arabic Wasil, i. e., the 'power' derived from the king), is the general name in Spain of the officers intrusted with the execution of justice. There are Alguaciles mayores,' who either inherit the office of executing justice in a town as a hereditary right belonging to their families, or are chosen to the office by the municipality; formerly, the name was also given to the officers that executed the sentences or orders of tribunals, such as the tribunal of the Inquisition, and of the various orders of knights. But usually, under the name of A., is understood the 'Alguaciles menores,' or 'ordinarios,' that is to say, the attendants or officers of the courts of justice, gens d'armes, bailiffs in short, all the inferior officers of justice and police.

ALHA'GI. See MANNA. ALHA'MBRA is the name given to the fortress which forms a sort of acropolis or citadel to the city

ALI PASHA, one of the most ferocious and unscrupulous men that even the east has produced, was descended from an Albanian pasha, who perished at the siege of Corfu in 1716. He was born at Tepelen, a small place at the foot of the Klissoura Mountains, in Albania, in 1741. His mother was a vindictive and merciless woman, who never hesitated to employ the most revolting means of accomplishing her purposes. Having lost his father, a comparatively quiet and enlightened man, his education necessarily devolved upon her; and she did not fail to inspire him with the same remorseless sentiments that animated herself. His youth was passed in extreme peril and hardship, for the neighbouring pashas combining, had robbed his father of nearly all his possessions, in the effort to recover which, young Ali was repeatedly defeated, and at last had to betake himself to the mountains, and even to pledge his sword calamities were not calculated to soften the native to save himself from dying of hunger. These ferocity of his disposition; they only nurtured a mingled boldness and cunning, which afterwards developed itself in a variety of qualities, such as subtlety, dissimulation, foresight, treachery, vigour, and diabolical cruelty. It is said that the change in his fortune arose from his having accidentally discovered a chest of gold, with which he raised an army of 2000 men, gained his first victory, and entered Tepelen in triumph. On the very day of his return, he murdered his brother, and then imprisoned his mother in the harem on the charge of poisoning him, where she soon after died. He next reconciled himself to the Porte by helping to subdue the rebellious Vizier of Scutari; and thus acquired not only the lands that had been wrested from his father, but likewise several Greek cities. He also attacked and slew (with the permission of the sultan) Selim, Pasha of Delvino, and, as a reward, was appointed lieutenant to the new Pasha of Derwend; but instead of attending to the security of the high roads (which was his office), he rendered them more insecure than ever, by participating in the plunder which the klephtis (robbers) were allowed to make. The result was, his deposition by the Porte; but he speedily purchased back its favour, for he was a master-hand at bribery. Shortly after this, he acquired a high reputation as a soldier, and did such good service to the Turks in their Austro-Russian war of 1787, that he was named Pasha of Trikala in Thessaly; at the same time he seized Janina or Joannina, of which he

ALIBAUD-ALIEN.

got himself appointed pasha by the instrumentality weariness of life had also seized him, so great, of terror, a forged firman, and bribery. It must be that he thought of suicide. It was on the 25th admitted that, as a ruler, he now displayed many of June 1836, at the moment that the king, when excellent qualities. He swept his old friends, the driving through the gate of the Tuileries, bowed to robbers, from the mountain-roads, incorporated them the national guard as they presented arms, that into military troops, quelled the wretched factions A. fired the well-aimed ball, which passed close that prevailed, and everywhere introduced order in by the king's head. Being immediately seized, he the place of anarchy, by the vigour and vigilance of regretted nothing but the failure of his attempt. his administration. After a short trial, he was sentenced to death, and was guillotined on the 11th of July.

A short time after this, he entered into an alliance with Napoleon Bonaparte, who sent him engineers. When Bonaparte was defeated in Egypt, Ali, in 1798, took the places in Albania possessed by the French. After a three years' war, he subdued the Suliotes, for which the Porte promoted him to be governor of Romania. About this time, he revenged upon the inhabitants of Gardiki an injury done to his mother forty years before, by the murder of 739 male descendants of the original offenders, who themselves were all dead.

In the interior of his dominions, Ali maintained the strictest order and justice. Security and peace reigned, high roads were constructed, and industry flourished, so that the European travellers, with whom he willingly held intercourse, considered him an active and intelligent governor. From the year 1807, when he once more entered into an alliance with Napoleon, the dependence of Ali on the Porte was merely nominal. Having failed, however, in his principal object, which was to obtain, at the peace of Tilsit, through the influence of Napoleon, Parga, on the coast of Albania, and the Ionian Islands, he now entered into an alliance with the English, to whom he made many concessions. In return for these, they granted Parga, nominally to the sultan, but really to Ali. As he now considered his power to be securely established, he caused the commanders of the Greek Armatoles (or Greek militia), who had hitherto given him assistance, to be privately assassinated one by one, while at the same time he put to death the assassins, to save himself from the suspicion of having been their instigator. The Porte at length determined to put an end to the power of this daring rebel; and in 1820, Sultan Mahmoud sentenced him to be deposed. Ali resisted for a time several pashas

that were sent against him; but at last surrendered,

ALI-BEN-ABI-TALEB, the first convert to Mohammedanism, and fourth calif, was the bravest and most faithful follower of the Prophet, whose daughter, Fatima, he married. Being made calif in the place of the murdered Othman, he was victorious over the rebels in ninety engagements. He took prisoner Aysha, the young widow of Mohammed, and his greatest enemy, in the battle of the Camel -so called because Aysha appeared in the field riding on a camel. Ali was murdered by a fanatic in the year 660. He was buried near Kufa, where a monument was afterwards erected to him, to which his votaries still go on pilgrimage, and which caused the building of the city Medjed Ali. The religious sect formed by the followers of Ali, called Shiites (q.v.), has spread extensively under that name in Persia and Tatary. The descendants of Ali and Fatima, called the Fatimites (q. v.), although much persecuted by the Ommaiades, have nevertheless ruled on the banks of the Nile and of the Tagus, in West Africa and in Syria. The best edition of the Proverbs or Maxims ascribed to Ali has been published by Fleischer (Ali's Hundred Proverbs, Arabian and Persian, Leip. 1837); Ali's Divan, the most complete collection of his lyrical poems, mostly on religious subjects, appeared lately at Bulek, near Cairo.

A'LIBI, Lat., signifying elsewhere.' This is a defence resorted to in criminal prosecutions, when the party accused, in order to prove that he could not tenders evidence to the effect that he was in a dif have committed the crime with which he is charged, ferent place at the time the offence was committed. When true, there can be no better proof of innocence; but as offering the readiest and most obvious oppor suspicion. In the case of crimes the place of committunity for false evidence, it is always regarded with ting which is immaterial-as, for example, the act of fabricating the plates, or of throwing off the spurious notes, in a case of forgery-a proof of A. is of no

avail.

on the security of an oath that his life and property would be granted him. Regardless of this, he was put to death, February 5, 1822. Ali possessed, indisputably, great natural gifts; but along with them, a character of the worst description. He never scrupled to use any means, provided it speedily secured his end. Yet we can hardly help admiring ALICA'NTE, chief town of a province of the the singular talent which he invariably displayed. same name in Spain. The province, formed of parts Like many other half-civilised monarchs and chiefs of the old kingdoms of Valencia and Murcia, contains who have lived within the sphere of European influ- (1870) 440,470 inhabitants. The town, one of the ence, he was keenly alive to whatever transpired most considerable seaports of Spain, is strongly among the powers of Christendom. Though utterly fortified, has 31,500 inhabitants, and is the staple illiterate himself, he had all the foreign journals place for the products of Valencia, especially soda, translated and read to him. He watched every cotton and linen fabrics, ropes, corn, oil, silk, and political change, as if conscious that the interests of the wine of the neighbouring district, known as A. his little region depended for their future prosperity or vino tinto, on account of its dark colour. A good on the west, and not on the east; and made friendly deal of this rough, and at the same time sweet, advances to both the French and the English, wine is used to doctor thin clarets for the British recognising, with a sagacity remarkable in a bar- market. In 1331 the town was besieged by the barian, that the practical dominion of the world had Moors; and again by the French under Asfeld in passed from the Crescent to the Cross. 1709. In 1873 it was unsuccessfully bombarded by the Cartagenan insurgents.

ALIBAUD, LOUIS, notorious for his attempt to murder King Louis-Philippe, was, at the Revo- A'LIEN (Lat. alienus, belonging to another, lution of July, quarter-master in the 15th regiment foreign). The citizen of one state, when resident in of the line. Having been degraded subsequently for another, unless naturalised (see NATURALISATION), an accidental brawl in the streets of Strasbourg, he is an alien. The condition of an alien does not demanded his discharge in 1834, and went to live at necessarily result from foreign birth, for the son of Perpignan, and then at Barcelona, where, having a natural-born or naturalised Englishman is not an become a fanatical republican, he returned to Paris, alien, wherever he may be born (4 Geo. II. c. 21, with the determination to murder the king. A s. 1). This privilege even extends to the second