ARMAGNAC-ARMED SHIP.

The chief manufacture is linen-weaving. A., from the year 495 to the 9th c., was the metropolis of Ireland, the native kings living at Eamania, 2 miles to the west of the city. It was then renowned as a school of theology and literature-its college being the first in Europe. After the Reformation, it suffered severely in the conflicts between the English and Irish; and it contained only three slated houses in 1765.

from a Turkish pasha or Greek bishop. But although the A. frequently suppressed the brigandage of the Klephts, they still regarded them in the light of brothers, inasmuch as they had a common origin and faith; both detested the oppressors of their country; and the sentiment of patriotism overruled every other consideration. This sympathy at last appeared to the Turks so dangerous that they grew alarmed, and desired to substitute for the A. the Mohammedan Albanians, who were the implacable enemies of the Greeks, which resolution did not a little to hasten the insurrection which the Porte ever dreaded. The moment it broke out, the A. pronounced themselves in favour of the national cause, and in the war of independence that ensued, distinguished themselves by their brilliant exploits.

ARMAGNAC (Ager Aremonicus), the old name of a district in the south of France, which at one time seems to have extended from the valleys of the Pyrenees to the Garonne. It is now included in the departments of Hautes Pyrénées and Gers. The remarkably fertile land, producing grain and the best descriptions of wine, and also favourable for pasturage, is cut up into an extraordinary number of small estates, and divided among numerous petty proprietors. The principal branch of trade is the distillation of the brandy known in commerce as Eau d'Armagnac, which rivals those of Cognac and Saintonge. The ancient capital is Lectoure, on the river Gers, with (1872) 2820 inhabitants. To the south of it lies Auch, the chief town of the depart-ence of terrestrial magnetism they lose considerably ment of Gers. Pop. (1872) 9414. The people are noted for their simplicity, strength, and bravery; but, on the other hand, they are extremely credulous and ignorant. Formerly, their services were highly [valued in times of war. The A. family, descended from the old Merovingian king, Clovis, played an important part in French history.

A'RMAMENT is a general name for the weapons of war employed in sea and land battles; all the weapons collectively being called the A. of a ship or

an army.

ARMANSPERG, Jos. LUDW., COUNT OF, formerly president of the government in Greece, was born in Lower Bavaria in 1787, and early embraced an administrative and diplomatic career. On the accession of King Louis to the throne, A., who had already occupied several important posts, was summoned to Munich, where, rapidly rising from one dignity to another, he at length became minister of finance and of foreign affairs. In both capacities he proved active ¡ and successful; but he drew upon himself the hatred of the Camarilla by his strenuous opposition to the claims of Rome, as well as by his attempts to identify himself with the decidedly liberal party. The consequence was that, in 1831, he lost his post, and in the same year was appointed ambassador to London, but preferred retiring to his family estate. However, he could not resist the king's repeated request that he would undertake the formation of his son's government in Greece, and accordingly, accompanying young King Otho, A. landed at Nauplia in January 1833. For four years he was at the head of public affairs, and Greece derived many benefits from his administration; but the heat of party strife and court intrigues led to his dismissal, and he left Greece in March 1837. After that time he lived in retirement upon his property, near Deggendorf, till his death in 1853.

ARMATO'LES, a body of Greek militia, first formed under the reign of Sultan Selim I. about the beginning of the 16th c. They were intended to preserve the fertile plains from the ravages of the Klephts (mountain robbers of Thessaly), who had never been entirely conquered by the Turks. The A. themselves were originally Klephts, but received their more honourable designation when the Porte had metamorphosed them into a sort of military police. The safety of the public roads was intrusted to their care. The whole of Northern Greece was divided into sixteen districts (capitaineries), each placed under the supervision of a chief of these militia, who, however, had himself to receive orders

H

A'RMATURE (armatura, armour; Ger. anker). The term A. is applied to the pieces of soft iron that are placed at the extremities or poles or magnets to preserve their magnetic power. When magnets are allowed to remain any length of time without such appendages, in consequence of the disturbing influin strength; but when they are provided with them their magnetism is kept in a state of constant activity, and thereby shielded from this disturbance. The reason of this is found in two facts well known in the science of magnetism-viz., that when a piece of soft iron is brought into contact with the extremity of a magnet, it is itself induced to become magnetic; and that the unlike poles of two different magnets powerfully attract each other. Referring to the figure, the north pole, N, of the horseshoe magnet, NHS, acting on the armature, sn, induces it to become a magnet, having its south pole, s, next to N, and its north pole, n, at the opposite extremity. The pole, S, by virtue of its magnetic affinity, powerfully attracts the north pole, n, thus formed, and adds its own inducing influence to heighten the magnetic condition previously induced in the armature by the pole N. A., from the combined action of both poles of the horseshoe magnet, is thus converted into a powerful magnet, with its poles lying in an opposite direction to that of the primary poles. The original magnet is, in consequence, brought into contact with one of its own making, the exact counterpart of itself-a condition highly favourable to the maintenance of its strength. It is due to the same mutual attractions that a much larger weight can be suspended from the A. thus placed, than what the single poles can together sustain. Bar magnets may be armed in the same way by laying them at some distance parallel to each other, with their unlike poles towards the same parts, and then connecting their extremities by two pieces of soft iron. When a magnet, such as a compass-needle, is free to take up the position required by the magnetism of the earth, the earth itself plays the part of an armature.

The

ARMED SHIP, in the official language of the Royal Navy, occupies a sort of medium position between a merchant-ship and a man-of-war. It is a private vessel, hired occasionally by the Admiralty for a special purpose, and commissioned for a temporary period. The duty is usually that of guarding some particular coast, or attending on a particular fleet, during a time of war; and while so employed, it is officered and equipped like one of the smaller ships-of-war in the Royal Navy.

ARMENIA.

In 632, the unhappy country was subjected to another form of despotism under the Arabian califs, and suffered terribly during their contest with the Byzantine emperors. In 885 A.D., Aschod I., of an old and powerful Armenian family, ascended the throne, with the permission of the califs, and founded the third Armenian dynasty-that of the Bagratide. Under them A. was prosperous till the 11th c., the country; till at length the Greeks, having when divisions and internal strife began to weaken murdered the last monarch of the Bagratidæ, seized a part of the kingdom, while the Turks and Kurds made themselves masters of the rest-only one or two of the native princes maintaining a perilous independence. In 1242, the whole of A. Major was conquered by the Mongols, and in 1472 became a Persian province. Afterwards the western part fell into the hands of the Turkish sultan, Selim II.

ARMENIA, a high table-land on the southern in A. was marked chiefly by their sanguinary but slope of the Caucasus, stretching down towards unsuccessful attempts to extirpate Christianity. Mesopotamia. It has had different boundaries in the various centuries of its history. It is the original seat of one of the oldest civilised peoples in the world, the Armenians, who belong to the IndoGermanic family of nations. Their oldest records contain nothing certain beyond the facts that, in ancient times, they were governed by independent kings, but afterwards became tributary to the Assyrians and Medes. wavers between myth and history begins, in the That dim period which case of A., about the middle of the 6th c. B. C., when King Dikran, or Tigranes I. of the Haig Dynasty, restored the independence of the kingdom. The last king of this dynasty was slain in battle against Alexander the Great, who conquered the country. After Alexander's death, A. passed through several changes of fortune under the Seleucida, who appointed governors over it. Artaxias and Zariadres-made themselves independOf these, twoent of their sovereign, Antiochus the Great, during the time when he was engaged in his contest with the Romans, 223-190 B. C. province into two districts-Artaxias taking A. They divided the Major (that part of the country lying E. of the Euphrates), and Zariadres A. Minor (the part to the W. of that river). The dynasty of Artaxias did not reign long; for about the middle of the 2d c. B. C., we find A. Major in the possession of a branch of the Parthian Arsacida, of which the most powerful king was Tigranes the Great, who added to the conquests made by his predecessors in Lower Asia and the region of the Caucasus, Syria, Cappadocia, and A. Minor; defeated the Parthians, and took from them Mesopotamia and other countries. He lost all these territories by his war with the Romans, into which he was led by his father-inlaw Mithridates, king of Pontus, in 63 B. C. this, the assaults of the Romans from the west ever After growing more and more vigorous, and those of the Parthians from the east, hastened the downfall of A. Major. The successors of Tigranes became dependent, partly on the one nation and partly on the other, while internally the nobles broke through the restraints of a feeble monarchy, and claimed the privileges of petty kings. A. Major was for a short time a Roman province. Under Trajan, Its subsequent history exhibited an unbroken series of tumults and wars, of violent successions to the throne, despotic reigns, and rapid decay. A.D. the province was conquered by the Sassanides, In 232 who held possession of it 28 years, until Tiridates III., the rightful heir, was restored to the throne by Roman assistance.

It was about this time that Christianity became the religion of A., which was thus the first nation to embrace the new religion. Tiridates himself had been converted by St Gregory the Illuminator as early as about 300 A.D. Armenia had for its basis the doctrines of ZoroThe old religion of aster, with a curious intermixture of Greek mythology, and of ideas peculiar to the country. It is certain that the Armenians worshipped as their mightiest gods, Aramazt and Mihir (the Ormuzd and Mithras of the old Persians); but they had also a kind of Venus, whom they styled Anaitis, and several other deities, to whom they offered animal sacrifices. This change of creed, however, made no improvement in the political circumstances of the falling state. The Byzantine Greeks on one side, and the Persians on the other, regarded A. as their prey; and in 428, Bahram V. of Persia made A. a province of the empire of the Sassanides, and with the deposition of Artasir the dynasty of the Arsacidae was brought to a close. The rule of the Sassanides

410

dynasty founded by Zariadres prevailed to the time The fate of A. Minor was hardly better. The of Tigranes the Great, sovereign of A. Major, who A. Minor was subjugated by the Romans, and made conquered the country about 70 B. C. Afterwards a Roman province. On the division of the Empire into eastern and western, it became attached to the former, and shared in all its changes of fortune until near the close of the 11th c. At this time A. Minor-which had long been a place of refuge for many who had fled from the rage of the Turks and Persians in the sister province-was again raised to independence by Rhupen (a refugee from A. Major, and descendant of the Bagratide). His successors extended their dominion over Cilicia and Cappadocia, and took a prominent part in the Crusades. This dynasty ruled prosperously until 1374, when A. Minor was conquered by the Egyptian exception of the parts which Russia has won in the sultan Schaban. Since that time A., with the present century from Persia, and which are better governed, has remained subject to the despotism of the Turks and Persians. Notwithstanding this, the Armenians have steadily preserved their nationality, both in its physical and moral lineaments; their faith; and even-though only a relic of their ancient The political storms which devastated the country culture-a higher civilisation than their conquerors. during the middle ages, and the persecutions of the Turks, have driven many of the inhabitants from scattered over all Asia and Europe. In Hungary, their homes. This is the reason why we find them Transylvania, and Galicia they number 10,000. They are very numerous in Russia, but most of Constantinople, where they number 200,000. all in Asia Minor, and in the neighbourhood of

Its area is estimated at 90,000 square miles; pop. The greater part of A. is an elevated table-land. about 2,000,000. It is watered by the rivers Kur, the Tigris. The lakes which lie within this mounAras, Joruk, Euphrates, and to a slight extent by tainous region are Van, Urumiyah, and Sevan. The Armenian plateau, on the eastern side of which the volcanic range of Ararat lifts itself, forms the central point of several mountain-chains, such as Taurus and Antitaurus, the mountains of Kurdistan, and those which run north to the Black Sea. exhibits numerous traces of having been subject to volcanic agency, and even yet-as was shewn by the severe earthquake of the summer of 1840, and by the total destruction of Erzerum in 1859possesses an internal volcanic activity. The climate winter, but in the valleys it is more temperate. in the higher regions is hot in summer and cold in The country labours under a great scarcity of wood, and in some parts is sterile, through a deficiency of

It

ARMENIAN CHURCH-ARMENIAN LITERATURE.

water; in other parts the soil is extremely fertile, producing rice, hemp, flax, tobacco, wine, cotton, and many varieties of fruit. Cattle breeding and grazing are more extensive than agriculture. The mountains contain iron, copper, lead, salt, and naphtha. The number of the inhabitants of pure Armenian origin is reckoned at nearly 1,000,000, but there is a large admixture of Turkomans, Greeks, Jews, Kurds, &c. The Armenians belong physically to the finest variety of the Indo-Germanic race. Their intellectual capacity is also remarkable, as is shewn both by their literature, and their singular dexterity in business. Still, long centuries of oppression have exerted a withering influence on their native strength of character. The north-east portion of A., about onethird of the whole, was wrested from Persia in 1828, and is under the Russian sceptre. About a sixth part to the south-east still belongs to Persia. The western portion, comprising two-thirds of the Armenian area, is Turkish. The treaty concluded between Russia and Turkey at the close of the war of 1877-78 stipulated for the cession to Russia of a strip of Turkish A., including the fortresses of Ardahan, Kars, and Bayazid.

one nature to Christ, and holds that the Spirit proceeds from the Father alone; the latter doctrine, however, being held by it in common with the orthodox Greek Church,' although contrary to the theology of the western churches. With respect to the 'seven sacraments,' it entertains the peculiar notions that at baptism one must be sprinkled three times, and as often dipped; that confirmation is to be conjoined with baptism; that the Lord's Supper must be celebrated with pure wine and leavened bread; that the latter, before being handed round, must be dipped in the former; and that extreme unction is to be administered to ecclesiastics alone, and that immediately after (and not before) their death. It believes in the worship of saints, but not in purgatory. It exceeds the Greek Church in the number of its fasts, but has fewer religious festivals. These, however, are more enthusiastically kept. Divine service is held in Turkey chiefly by night. Mass is celebrated in the old Armenian language; preaching is carried on in the new. Its sacerdotal constitution differs little from the Greek. The head of the church, whose title is Catholikos, resides at Etshmiadzin, a monastery near Erivan, the capital of Russian Armenia. To this place every Armenian must make a pilgrimage once in his life. The monks of this church follow the rule of St Basil. The Wartabieds form a peculiar class of ecclesiastics; they live like monks, but are devoted exclusively to learning. Secular priests must marry once, but none are at liberty to take a second wife.

ARMENIAN CHURCH. Christianity appears to have been introduced into Armenia as early as the 2d c., for, according to tradition, Dionysius, Bishop of Corinth, wrote an epistle to the Armenian Christians, who were then under the authority of a bishop named Meruzanes. It was first firmly established, however, about the end of the 3d c. by the apostolical exertions of Bishop Gregory (q. v.), who converted Tiridates (see ARMENIA). The Bible ARMENIAN LITERATURE. Previous to was translated into the Armenian language in the the introduction of Christianity by Gregory (300 A.D.), 5th c. After this period great animation prevailed the Armenians had adhered to the Assyrian or Medoin the A. C. Numbers flocked to the colleges at Persian system of culture; but excepting a few Athens and Constantinople. In the ecclesiastical old songs or ballads, no remains of that early period controversy concerning the twofold nature of exist. After their conversion to Christianity, the Christ, the Armenian Christians held with the Greek language and its literature soon became Monophysites (q. v.); refused to acknowledge the favourite objects of study, and many Greek authors authority of the Council of Chalcedon; and con- were translated into Armenian. (See Wenrich De stituted themselves a separate church, which took Auctorum Græcorum versionibus Arabicis, Armeniacis, the title of Gregorian from Gregory himself. For &c. Leipzig, 1842.) The Armenian language has an several centuries a spirit of scientific inquiry, alphabet of its own, consisting of 36 letters, introespecially in theology, manifested itself among duced by Miesrob in 406. The most flourishing period them to a far wider extent than in the other of A. L. extends from the 4th to the 14th c. The Eastern churches. Their greatest divine is Nerses numerous Armenian theological writers and chroniof Klah, belonging to the 12th c., whose works clers of this era supply materials for a history of the have been repeatedly published. The most recent East during the middle ages which have hitherto edition was issued in Venice, 1833. The Gregorians been too much neglected. These Armenian writers have continued to entertain a deeply rooted aver- generally copied the style of the later Greek and sion to the so-called orthodox church. The Roman Byzantine authors; but in adherence to facts and Catholic popes at various times, especially (1145, good taste, they are superior to the general order of 1341, 1440) when the Armenians accepted the help oriental historians. In the 14th c., literature began of the West against the Mohammedans, tried to to decline, and few remarkable works were afterwards persuade them to recognise the papal supremacy; produced; but since the time of their dispersion, but for the most part only the nobles consented the Armenians have preserved recollections of their to do so, while the mass of the people clung to national literature; and wherever they are found their peculiar opinions, as we see from the com--in Amsterdam, Lemberg, Leghorn, Venice, Astraplaint of Pope Benedict XII., who accuses the A. C. kan, Moscow, Constantinople, Smyrna, Ispahan, of 117 errors of doctrine. There is a sect of Madras, or Calcutta-the printing-office is always United Armenians in Italy, Poland, Galicia, Persia, a feature in their colonies. The most interesting Russia, and Marseille. Since the formation of this Armenian settlement is that of the Mechitarists body in 1835, vigorous and constant attempts, (q. v.), on the island of San Lazaro, near Venice. succoured especially by French influence, have The Bible translated into Armenian (the Old been made to secure the acknowledgment of the Testament from the text of the Septuagint) by pope as the head of the Roman Catholic portion of Miesrob and his scholars (411 A.D.), is esteemed the the A. C. When this end seemed nearer attain- highest model of classic style. Translations of ment than ever before, the Ultramontane utter- several Greek authors, made about the same time, ances of their representative, Mgr. Hassun, at the have been partly preserved, and contain some writEcumenical Council at Rome, 1870, in favour of ings of which the originals have been lost-namely, infallibility, created such a reaction at home as has the Chronicle of Eusebius; the Discourses of Philo; greatly strengthened for the present the cause of Homilies by St Chrysostom, Severianus, Basil the the old Gregorian party. The recent humiliation Great, and Ephraim Syrus. Several old geographiof France has further weakened the cause of the pro- cal and historical works have been preserved. papal party. In theology the A. C. attributes only | Among philosophical and theological writers may be

ARMERIA-ARMIES.

mentioned: David, the translator and commentator witness the invasion of Sweden by the successful dismissed by the king. In the following year a revo The Norwegians, and was in consequence recalled and lution took place, Gustavus was deposed, the Duke of Sudermania elected in his place, and A. was appointed president of the Military Council. But shortly after, being implicated in the poisoning of the Prince of Augustenburg, he was obliged to fly to Russia, where he lived during the remainder of his life in high honour. The title of Count was university of Abo, president of the Board of Finnish conferred on him, he was made chancellor of the Affairs, and member of the Russian senate. He died at Tzarsko Selo on the 19th August 1814.

of Aristotle, Esnik, and Joannes Ozniensis. Vita Sanctorum Calendarii Armeniaci (Lives of Armenian Saints, 12 vols. Ven. 1814) contains many notices of the history of Armenia. In poetry and fiction, A. L. is poor. Somal, in his work entitled Quadro della Storia Litteraria di Armenia (Venice, 1829), gives a general view of the contents of A. L. The Armenian belongs to the Indo-Germanic group of languages, but has many peculiarities of structure. It is harsh and disagreeable to the ear. Armenian, the language of literature, is no longer The old a living tongue; while the new Armenian, split up into four dialects, contains many Turkish words and grammatical constructions.

ARME'RIA. See THRIFT.

ARMFELT, GUSTAF MAURITZ, a

celebrated

Swede, whose public life was characterised by striking vicissitudes of fortune, was the eldest son of Baron Armfelt, and born at Juva, in the government of Abo, on the 1st of April 1757. Having, as an officer of the royal guard, displayed great activity and zeal in opposing the machinations of the nobles, who were at that period disaffected towards Gustavus III., the latter appreciated the value of his services, and appointed him to a post in the service of the Crown Prince. During the war between Sweden and Russia (1788-90), in which he was commander of one of the three divisions of the Swedish army, he displayed remarkable courage and spirit, and advanced still higher in the good graces of the monarch. He defeated a Russian force at Summa, near Fredrikshamm; and as military representative of Gustavus, had the honour of concluding a peace at Verela on the 14th of August 1790. On the 16th of March 1792, Gustavus was assassinated. His wound, though mortal, did not instantly deprive him of life, and he employed the brief interval that elapsed before his death in drawing up a codicil to his will, by which the regency was intrusted to the king's brother, Charles, Duke of Sudermania, during the minority of Gustavus IV., A. being named governor of Stockholm, and member of the council appointed to advise with the regent. The Duke of Sudermania, however, could not brook the idea of a check being placed upon his liberty of action, and found means to destroy the codicil, the conditions of which he never intended to observe. A. soon became conscious that his influence was rapidly evaporating. He was rarely permitted to see the young king; and at last, after a secret interview with young Gustavus, departed as ambassador to Naples in July 1792. While in Italy, he entered into correspondence with certain parties in Sweden for the purpose of overthrowing the regency, and inducing the States to proclaim Gustavus IV. of age. The correspondence was discovered. A. fled to Poland, and afterwards to Russia. He was condemned, during his absence, for high treason, and stripped of his goods and titles, while one of his associates, the beautiful Countess Rudensköld, was subjected to the most brutal punishment, being publicly declared infamous,' exposed on a scaffold for some hours, and imprisoned in a house of correction for life. A. expressed his horror of such an atrocity in language sufficiently emphatic, yet, at a later period, he did not scruple to accept office under Charles, on his election to the throne. In 1799, Gustavus IV. received the crown at the age of eighteen, and A. was restored to all his honours. appointed governor-general of Finland; and in In 1805, he was 1808 he commanded the Swedish army raised for the invasion of Norway; but his plans were so completely frustrated, that he was compelled to

412

ARMIDA, one of the most prominent female characters in Tasso's Jerusalem Delivered. As the poet tells us, when the Crusaders arrived at the

holy city, Satan held a council to devise some means of disturbing the plans of the Christian employed to seduce Rinaldo and other Crusaders. Rinaldo was conducted by A. to a remote island, warriors, and A., a very beautiful sorceress, was where, in her splendid palace, surrounded by delightful gardens and pleasure-grounds, he utterly forgot his vows, and the great object to which he had devoted his life. To liberate him from his voluptuous bondage, two messengers from the Christian armyCarlo and Ubaldo-came to the island, bringing a talisman so powerful that the witchery of A. was the sorceress, who, in battle, incited several warriors destroyed. Rinaldo escaped, but was followed by to attack the hero, and at last herself rushed into confessed his love to her, persuaded her to become the fight. She was defeated by Rinaldo, who then The story of A. has been made the subject of an a Christian, and vowed to be her faithful knight. opera both by Gluck and Rossini.

organisation, employed for purposes of national ARMIES, armed forces under regular military offence or defence. An army may comprise the whole military men employed by the state, or only a portion under a particular commander. When an armed force is under no constituted authority, and imperfect in its organisation and discipline, it cannot be said to be worthy of the name of an army, and may be little better than a horde of banditti. Of this nature are the fillibustering expeditions (see FILLIBUSTERS) in which certain portions of the citizens of the United States frequently engage. Through long ages of experience, the principles of military organisation, and the laws to which A. are specially amenable, have gradually reached a high degree of perfection. The primitive wars among barbarous people are always stealthy, depending on the forest and the wilderness for their tactics, and considered successful if an enemy can be attacked unawares, despoiled, and carried into slavery. After a time, war advances to the position of an art, and is conducted by men who have received a certain training. An army becomes an instrument not only for vanquishing enemies, but for seizing countries. Even then the highest position of an army is not reached; for the defence of a country requires more military skill, perhaps, and a better organisation of troops, than an attack.

pædia relating to the chief nations of ancient and In the several historical articles in this Encyclomodern times, the wars in which these nations engaged are succinctly noticed as elements in the life of each nation; but it seems desirable, in the certain minor details scattered through the work, present place, as a means of rendering intelligible to give a brief description of the chief points in which the A. of different states or countries have differed in constitution.

ARMIES.