conquered territory; lands were held from the chief by feudal tenure, almost in independent sovereignty. When European kingdoms were gradually formed out of the wrecks of the Empire, the military arrangements put on a peculiar form. The king could not maintain a standing army, for his barons or feudal chieftains were jealous of allowing him too much power. He could only strengthen himself by obtaining their aid on certain terms, or by allowing them to weaken themselves in intestine broils, to which they had always much proneness. Each baron had a small army composed of his own militia or retainers, available for battle at short notice. The contests of these small armies, sometimes combined and sometimes isolated, make up the greater part of the wars of the middle ages. Of military tactics or strategy, there was very little; the campaigns were desultory and indecisive; and the battles were gained more by individual valour than by any well-concerted plan.

One great exception to this military feudality was furnished by the Crusades (q. v.). So far as concerns A., however, in their organisation and discipline, these expeditions effected but little. The military forces which went to the Holy Land were little better than armed mobs, upheld by fanaticism, but not at all by science or discipline. Numbers and individual bravery were left to do the work, combination and forethought being disregarded.

A much greater motive-power for change, during the middle ages, was the invention of gunpowder. When men could fight at a greater distance than before, and on a system which brought mechanism to the aid of valour, everything connected with the military art underwent a revolution. Historically, however, this great change was not very apparent until after the period usually denominated the middle ages. The art of making good cannon and hand-guns grew up gradually, like other arts; and A. long continued to depend principally on the older weapons-spears, darts, arrows, axes, maces, swords, and daggers.

arm.

During the greater part of the 14th and 15th centuries, the chief A. were those maintained by the Spaniards and the Moors on one European battleground, by the English and the French on another, and by the several Italian republics on a third. In those A., the cavalry were regarded as the chief The knights and their horses alike were frequently covered with plate or chain armour; and the offensive weapons were lances, swords, daggers, and battle-axes. A kind of light cavalry was sometimes formed of archers on smaller horses. As to army-formation, there was still little that could deserve the name; there was no particular order of battle; each knight sought how he could best distinguish himself by personal valour; and to each was usually attached an esquire, abetting him as a second during the contest. Sometimes it even happened that the fate of a battle was allowed to depend on a combat between two knights. No attempt was made, until towards the close of the 15th c., to embody a system of tactics and manœuvres for cavalry; and even that attempt was of the most primitive kind. Nor was it far otherwise with the foot-soldiers; they were gradually becoming acquainted with the use of firearms; but, midway as it were between two systems, they observed neither completely; and the A. in which they served presented very little definite organisation.

ARMIES, MODERN. The formation of standing A. may be said to have introduced the modern military system. When the remarkable exploit of Jeanne d'Arc (Joan of Arc) had enabled Charles VII. to check the victorious progress of the English in France, he set about remodelling his army.

By gradual changes, and amid great difficulty, he converted his ill-governed forces into a disciplined standing army. During the reign of his son, Charles VIII. (1483-1498), the consequences of this change made their appearance. Charles conducted a wellappointed army into Italy (1494), in support of some pretensions which he had to the throne of Naples.

The change made by Charles VII. was not simply that of substituting a compact standing army for an ill-organised medley of feudal troops and of mercenaries; feudalism itself gave way under the influence of this combined with other reforming agencies. So far as concerned the actual formation and discipline of the standing A. above noticed, a few changes were from time to time introduced: pistols and carbines were given to the cavalry; cuirasses were worn by the heavy troopers; and new evolutions were introduced. During the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648), Gustavus Adolphus and Wallenstein adopted opposite modes of dealing with masses of infantry: the former spread them out to a great width, and only six ranks in depth; whereas the latter adopted a narrower front, with a depth of twenty to thirty ranks. Frederick the Great, in the next century, introduced a most complicated system of tactics and drilling; insomuch that when he could manoeuvre, he nearly always won his battles; but when the result depended on bold and unexpected onslaughts, he was more frequently a loser than a winner. The great military leader in the early part of the present century, Napoleon Bonaparte, made a larger use than any previous European general of the method of moving masses of troops with great celerity, beating the enemy in detail before they could combine in one spot.

It is desirable to present, in the most condensed form, a few statistics of the actual A. of Europe; leaving to future articles, under the names of the several countries, cities, and battle-fields, all details concerning special A. and military encounters.

France.-A law passed in 1872 enacts that every Frenchman, with a few specified exceptions, is liable to personal service in the army, and forbids substitution. Every Frenchman not declared unfit for military service, or specially exempted therefrom, must be for five years in the active army (composed of those who have reached the age of 20 years), for four years in the reserve of the active army, for five years in the territorial army, and for six years in the reserve of the territorial army. By the law of July 24, 1873, France is divided, for military purposes, into 18 regions, each occupied by a corps d'armée, containing 2 divisions of infantry, 1 brigade of cavalry, 1 of artillery, 1 battalion of engineers, 1 squadron of the military train. When the present reorganisation is completed, the active army will be composed of 156 regiments of infantry (line, light, Zouaves, Algerian tirailleurs, &c.), 25 single battalions, and 293 companies (depots, &c.); making in all, for the infantry, 279,986 men; of cavalry, 67 regiments in France, 3 in Algiers, 13 depots of these regiments, and a cavalry school, comprising 67,888 men; artillery, 40 regiments and 17 companies, with 58,096 men; engineers, 4 regiments, having 13,551 men; of the military train, 11,486 men; in all, for the active army, 441,007. On the war footing this number would be increased to 1,104,735, without taking account of sanitary corps, gendarmes, &c. Including the territorial army, its reserve force, and the reserves of the active army, the total military force of France is 2,505,000. The budget of 1876 provided for 490,321 men, including gendarmes, &c.

Germany. By the imperial constitution, April 16, 1871, the Prussian obligation to serve in the

army has 60,000 infantry, 9000 cavalry, 2500 engineers, and 8500 artillery, making a total of 80,000 men. The reserves increase this number to 216,000. There is besides an army of 54,500 in Cuba, 9400 in Porto Rico, and of 9000 in the Philippines.

Switzerland.-The federal army has 1269 engineers, 8401 artillery, 1942 cavalry, 6078 tirailleurs, 65,991 infantry, and 364 of a sanitary corps. In all, 84,045. There are besides, of the reserves, 51,102; the landwehr, 65,562; giving a total available military force of 201,578.

Turkey. In 1871, the Turkish regular army had infantry to the number of 72,000; cavalry, 9000; artillery, 9500; engineers, 1600; with 1200 miscellaneous troops amounting to 93,300. Before the war of 1877 it was proposed that by 1878 the regular army should be increased to 152,000. The irregulars (Bashi-bazouks, Spahis, &c.) are about 70,000. And the contingents which the dependent states are bound to furnish are severally: Upper Albania, 10,000; Bosnia, 30,000; Egypt, 15,000; Tunis and Tripoli, 4000.

United States.-At the commencement of 1861 the United States army consisted only of about 14,000 regular troops. In various successive levies by the president during the civil war (1861-1865), as many as 2,653,062 men had been called outnearly one-fourth of the entire population of the Northern States. After the war, the standing army was steadily diminished; and by a law passed in 1870, it is provided that there shall be no more than 30,000 enlisted men at one time. That force is distributed amongst 25 regiments of infantry, 10 of cavalry, 5 of artillery, and 1 battalion of engineers. Besides the regular army there is the militia, of which the nominal strength was at the last census, 3,245,000.

A separate and fuller treatment of the army of Great Britain is reserved for BRITISH ARMY; and for that in our Indian possessions see EAST ÍNDIA ARMY. All the various matters relating to the formation, organisation, discipline, arms, equipments, duties, and tactics of A., will be found succinctly treated under appropriate headings.

ARMI'LLARY SPHERE (armilla, a ring), an instrument intended to give a just conception of the constitution of the heavens, and of the motions of the heavenly bodies, as seen by an observer on the earth. It consists of a number of rings fixed together so as to represent the principal circles of the celestial sphere, and these are movable round the polar axis within a meridian and horizon, as in the ordinary celestial globe. It was by means of such rings furnished with sights that Hipparchus, Ptolemy, and other ancient astronomers made many of their observations, and we find even Tycho Brahé making most of his planetary observations with the help of such an instrument. The A. S. is, however, now only used as an aid to instruction in astronomy, and in this respect is generally supplanted by the celestial globe. The object aimed at in the A. S. will be better understood by reference to the celestial globe represented in the diagram. Supposing the observer on the earth to be in the centre of the sphere, the earth on which he stands shuts out from his view the lower half of the heavens, or the part lying below the horizon HH. The hemisphere above him may be regarded as divided into two equal portions, an eastern and a western, by the meridian MM, which passes through the pole P, and the zenith Z, of which the eastern half is shewn in the figure. The north pole is supposed to be elevated above the horizon, and its elevation is measured by the arc NP, or the height above the north point; and the heavens appear to rotate round an axis PQ, of which P is one

Of the other leading celestial circles, the equator or equinoctial LL, extending from the east to the west point of the horizon, the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, respectively BB and CC, and the arctic circle AA, although rotating with the stars, maintain the same position with regard to the horizon; while the ecliptic, KK, is constantly changing its inclination and position towards it. Circles which extend from pole to pole, cutting the equator at right angles, are called circles of declination. The circle which passes through the vernal equinox P (see ARIES), is denominated the equinoctial colure; and that passing through the summer solstice O (see SOLSTICE), the solstitial colure. The circles just named, together with the Antarctic Circle, are represented by corresponding rings in the A. S. If S be a star, the following are the names given to the arcs which determine its position with regard to these circles: cpV, Right ascension; SV, Declination; SP, Polar distance; SZ, Zenith distance; XS, Altitude; (XN+180°), Azimuth, reckoned from the south pole westward.

ARMI'NIUS, JACOBUS, the founder of Arminianism, was born at Oudewater (Old Water) in 1560. His real name in Dutch was James Harmensen; but in accordance with the prevailing custom amongst scholars in those days, he Latinised it. His father was a cutler, and died when A. was a child. After a preliminary education at Utrecht, he commenced (in 1575) a course of study at the newly founded university of Leyden, where he remained for six years, and where he seems to have acquired a high reputation, for the Amsterdam merchants undertook to bear the expense of his further studies for the ministry, on condition that he would not preach out of their city unless permitted to do so. In 1582, he went to Geneva, and received the instructions of Theodore Beza, the most rigid of Calvinists. Here he made himself odious by the boldness with which he defended the logic of Peter Ramus, in opposition to that of the Aristotelians of Geneva, and in consequence had to retire to Basle, whither his fame must have preceded him, for he was offered by the faculty of Divinity in that university the

The greatest enemy of A. was Francis Gomar, his colleague in the university of Leyden. In the course of the year 1604, the latter attacked his doctrines, and from that hour to the end of his life, A. was engaged in a series of bitter disputes with his opponents. The odium theologicum was never exhibited in more unmingled purity. Arminius asserted, in substance, that God bestows forgiveness and eternal life on all who repent of their sins and believe in Christ; he wills that all men should attain salvation, and only because he has from eternity foreseen the belief or unbelief of individuals, has he from eternity determined the fate of each. On the other hand, Gomar and his party, appealing to the Belgic Confession and the Heidelberg Catechism, maintained, that God had, by an eternal decree, predestinated what persons shall, as being elected to salvation, be therefore awakened to repentance and faith and by grace made to persevere therein; and what persons shall, as being rejected (reprobati), be left to sin, to unbelief, and to perdition. See PREDESTINATION, PERSEVERANCE OF SAINTS. While these fierce disputes were continuing, A., who was not destitute either of friends or influence, was created rector magnificus of the university, but resigned the honour on the 8th of February 1606, having held the office only for one year. All the pulpits in Holland now fulminated against him. At length, in 1608, A. himself applied to the states of Holland to convoke a synod for the purpose of settling the controversy; but, worn out with care and disease, he died, on the 19th of October 1609, before it was held, leaving seven sons and two daughters by his wife, Elizabeth Reael, daughter of Laurent Reael, a judge and senator of Amsterdam.

There can be no doubt that A. himself was much less Arminian than his followers. He had not matured his opinions sufficiently to elaborate a complete system of anti-Calvinistic doctrine, though it is perfectly certain that the conclusions at which his disciples arrived- -as stated in the famous Five Articles'-are the logical and legitimate results of his teaching. He always complained, however, that his opinions were misrepresented; but this is invariably the fate of controversialists, and the penalty of controversy. A. was an extremely good man, as even his enemies allow; his abilities were also of a high order; his thinking is clear, bold, and vigorous; his style remarkably methodical, and his scholarship respectable, if not profound.

After the death of A., his followers gained strength, and boldly asserted their views, but still

This last point, left as an open question, was decided by the Remonstrants in the affirmative soon afterwards (1611). Whereupon the Gomarists (Calvinists) put forth a strong Counter-remonstrance,' asserting plainly absolute predestination and reprobation. After several fruitless discussions, the states of Holland, in January 1614, acting under the advice of Oldenbarneveld, a senator, and the learned Hugo Grotius, issued an edict of full toleration for both parties, prohibiting at the same time the continuance of the controversy. The Counterremonstrants (or Calvinists) refused to submit to this edict, and the strife soon became so furious, that in 1617, or soon afterwards, the Arminians found it necessary to guard themselves from personal violence by appointing a safeguard of militia-men (Waardgelders). The controversy now merged in the strife of party politics. The ambitious Maurice of Orange took advantage of the passions of the majority to crush his opponents of the republican party, whose leaders were adherents of the Arminian doctrines. Several Arminians were put to death-among them the aged senator Oldenbarneveld, May 13, 1619while Grotius and others were imprisoned. In these circumstances, the Synod of Dort was held (1618-1619), attended by selected representatives from the Netherlands, England, Scotland, the Palatinate, Switzerland, Nassau, East Friesland, and Bremen. From this convocation (January 14, 1619), the thirteen Arminian pastors, with the learned and eloquent Simon Episcopus at their head, were excluded. The doctrines of the Counter-remonstrants were embodied in ninety-three canons; the Belgic Confession and the Heidelberg Catechism were confirmed as authorities for the reformed churches of the Netherlands; and three hundred Arminians (chiefly preachers) were expelled from office. In consequence of this decision, the defeated party sought shelter in France, Holstein, England, &c. Afterwards, under Frederick-Henry, the stadtholder after Prince Maurice (1630), they were again tolerated in Holland, and in 1634 Episcopus opened his theological college in Amsterdam.

Since that time, the Remonstrants (or Arminians) in Holland have inclined more and more towards freedom of thought on religious questions and independence in church government. The rejection of all creeds and confessions; the free interpretation of the Scriptures; a preference of moral to doctrinal teaching; Arian views respecting the Trinity; the virtual rejection of the doctrines of original sin and imputed righteousness, and the view of the sacraments as merely edifying forms or ceremonies: all these and other points of belief display the same tendency

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