ABBADIE-ABBOT.

His orthodoxy has been disputed. From some of his works we gain the impression that he was a Unitarian. His personal qualities secured him universal esteem. Rousseau, who could not bear to praise a contemporary, penned his solitary panegyric on A.

ABBADIE, ANTOINE and ARNOULD-MICHEL D', two brothers, French travellers, known for their researches in Abyssinia, from 1837 to 1845. According to their own account, their objects were purely ethnological and geographical; but they were regarded by certain English travellers and missionaries as agents employed by the French government for religious and political purposes; amongst the results of their travels are a catalogue of Ethiopian MSS., an Ethiopic version of the Pastor of Hermas, and the now completed Géodesie de l'Ethiopie. The English expedition to Abyssinia led Arnould d'A. to publish, in 1868, his Douze Ans dans la Haute-Ethiopie. Arnould has also distinguished himself by his study of the Basque language.

ABBANDONAMENTÉ (Ital.), in Music, with self-abandonment; despondingly.

ABBAS, the uncle of Mohammed, the Arabian prophet, and the chief promoter of his religion (d. 652), was the founder of the family of the ABBASIDES, who ruled as califs of Bagdad from 749 to 1258, and afterwards exercised the spiritual functions of the califate in Egypt, under the protection of the Mamelukes, till 1517, when that dignity passed to the Turkish sultan. Descendants of this family still live in Turkey and India.-The ABBASIDES in Persia were descended from the race of the Sofi, who ascribed their origin to the calif Ali. This race acquired dominion in 1500, and became extinct in 1736. Among them, Abbas I., surnamed the Great, was the most eminent ruler. He came to the throne 1586, and died 1628. His reign was marked by

a series of victories over the Turks. In alliance with

England, he destroyed, in 1621, the Portuguese colony at Ormuz.

His eldest son, Mohammed Mirza, mounted the throne in 1834, on the death of Feth-Ali, under the united protection of England and Russia.

ABBATE, NICCOLO DELL, or NICCOLO ABATI, was born at Modena in 1509 or 1512, and died at Paris in 1571. He was an able and skilful artist in fresco-painting, and was a follower both of Raphael and Correggio; yet he rather blent the two styles in one than imitated either separately. His influence is traceable in the art which prevailed during the second half of the 16th century. His earlier works are to be seen at Modena; his later ones at Bologna, among which is his Adoration of the Shepherds,' considered his finest; but he is best known by the frescoes which he executed for the Castle of Fontainbleau, from the designs of Primaticcio. These, how. ever, with the exception of the tableaux representing the history of Alexander the Great, were unfortun ately destroyed in 1738, at the barbarous suggestion of an architect who wished to enlarge the building.

ABBÉ, the French name for an Abbot (q. v.), but often used in the general sense of a priest or clergyman. By a concordat between Pope Leo X. and Francis I. (1516), the French king had the right to nominate upwards of 200 Abbés Commendataires, who, without having any duty to perform, drew a considerable proportion of the revenues of the convents. The hope of obtaining one of those sinecures led multitudes of young men, many of them of noble birth, to enter the clerical career, who, however, seldom went further than taking the inferior orders (see ORDERS, HOLY); and it became customary to call all such aspirants abbés-jocularly, Abbés of St Hope. They formed a considerable and influential class in society; and an abbé, distinguished by a short black or violet-coloured frock, and a peculiar style of wearing the hair, was found as friend or ghostly adviser in almost obtained an abbey, he was enjoined to take holy every family of consequence. When a candidate orders; tinued to draw the revenues as secular or lay but many procured dispensation, and con

abbots.

ABBESS, the superior of a religious community of women, corresponding in rank and authority to an abbot (q. v.), except in not being allowed to exercise the spiritual functions of the priesthoodsuch as preaching, confession, &c.

ABBEVILLE. See SUPP., Vol. X.
ABBEY. See MONASTERY.

ABBAS-MIRZA, a Persian prince, well known by his wars against Russia, was the son of the Shah Feth-Ali, and was born in 1783. Abbas possessed great talents and acquirements, and a love for the manners and culture of the West. When he was yet young, his father made him governor of the province Azerbijan, where, by the help of English officers, he applied himself to the reform of the army. When Persia, in 1811, influenced by France, declared war against Russia, Abbas was commander-in-chief of the main body of the Persian ABBEY is used in a legal sense in Scotland, army, but was unsuccessful. Persia lost, at the peace of Gulistan, in 1813, its remaining possessions and signifies the sanctuary or protection to a debtor in the Caucasus, and was forced to acknowledge the against legal process afforded by the A. of Holyrood. flag of Russia on the Caspian Sea. At the instiga- This privilege has, of course, its origin in the fact tion of Abbas, a new war broke out in 1826, between that churches used to be regarded as a sanctuary Feth-Ali and Russia. The prince fought a second and shelter for all who sought refuge within their time with extraordinary bravery at the head of the walls. The first instance known of a debtor seekarmy, but was again obliged to yield to the supe-1531 A.D.-is recorded by George Buchanan. See ing refuge in Holyrood Abbey-that of John Scott, riority of the Russian arms, and to conclude a peace, on February 22, 1828, at Turkmantschai, by which Persia lost all share in Armenia. In this treaty, Russia had guaranteed to Abbas the succession to the Persian throne, the consequence of which was that he became dependent on Russia, and was obliged to give up his connection with England. When, in 1829, the Russian ambassador at Teheran was murdered in a popular tumult, which he had provoked by imprudence, Abbas went in person to St Petersburg, to prevent any ill consequences, and to maintain the peace. He was received by the emperor with kindness, and went back to Persia loaded with presents. He died in 1833. His death was a great loss to his country, although he could not have prevented the encroachments of Russia.

SANCTUARY.

ABBOT (father'). This name, originally given to any aged monk, was afterwards more strictly applied to the superior of a monastery or abbey. Since the 6th c., abbots have belonged to the clerical orders, but at first they were not necessarily priests. After the second Nicene Council (787), abbots were empowered to consecrate monks for the lower sacred orders; but they remained in subordination under their diocesan bishops until the 11th c. As abbeys became wealthy, abbots increased in power and influence; many received episcopal titles; and all were ranked as prelates of the church next to the bishops, and had the right of voting in church-councils.

Even

ABBOT-ABBREVIATIONS.

A.

abbesses contended for the same honours and privi- of Arminian doctrines was an exception to his geneleges, but without success. In the 8th and 9th ral rule of conduct. His independent and liberal c., abbeys began to come into the hands of lay- spirit incurred the displeasure of Charles L men, as rewards for military service. In the 10th was employed on the authorised translation of the c., many of the chief abbeys in Christendom were Bible under James I. His other literary productions under lay-abbots (Abbates Milites, or Abba-comites), are not important. He died at Croydon, 1633, and while subordinate deans or priors had the spiritual a monument was erected to his memory in his native oversight. The members of the royal household town, Guildford.-His brother, ROBERT A., bishop received grants of abbeys as their maintenance, of Salisbury (b. 1560-d. 1617), was a learned theoand the king kept the richest for himself. Thus, logian, and the author of a treatise De Suprema Hugo Capet of France was lay-abbot of St Denis, Potestate Regia (1616), written to controvert the near Paris. Sometimes convents of nuns were doctrines of Bellarmine and Suarez. granted to men, and monasteries to women of ABBOTSFORD, the seat of Sir Walter Scott, is rank. These abuses were, in a great measure, situated on the south bank of the Tweed, a little reformed during the 10th c. After the reformation above its confluence with the Gala, and about of the order of Benedictines, monasteries arose three miles from the town of Melrose. Before it that were dependent upon the mother-monastery became, in 1811, the property of Sir Walter, the of Clugny and without abbots, being presided over site of the house and grounds of A. formed a small by priors or pro-abbates. Of the orders founded after farm known by the name of Clarty Hole. The the 11th c., only some named the superiors of new name was the invention of the poet, who their convents abbots; most, from humility or other loved thus to connect himself with the days when cause, used the titles of prior, major, guardian, Melrose abbots passed over the fords of the Tweed. rector. Abbesses have almost always remained under On this spot, a sloping bank overhanging the river, the jurisdiction of their diocesan bishop; but the with the Selkirk Hills behind, he built at first a abbots of independent or liberated abbeys acknow- small villa, now the western wing of the castle. ledged no lord but the pope. In the middle ages, the Afterwards, as his fortune increased, he added the so-called Insulated Abbots frequently enjoyed epis- remaining portions of the building, on no uniform copal titles, but only a few had dioceses. Before plan, but with the desire of combining in it some the period of secularisation in Germany, several of of the features (and even actual remains) of those the abbots in that country had princely titles and ancient works of Scottish architecture which he powers. In England there were a considerable num- most venerated. The result was that singularly ber of Mitred Abbots who sat and voted in the House picturesque and irregular pile, which has been aptly of Lords. The election of an abbot belongs, as a rule, characterised as a romance in stone and lime.' to the chapter or assembly of the monks, and is The present proprietor of A. is the Hon. Joseph afterwards confirmed by the pope or by the bishop, Constable Maxwell, son of Lord Herries, who, in according as the monastery is independent or under 1873, married a great-granddaughter of the novelist, episcopal jurisdiction. But from early times, the and assumed the name of Scott. A. is visited pope in Italy has claimed the right of conferring annually by thousands of people of every nationality. many abbacies, and the concordat of 1516 gave a ABBOTT, CHARLES. See TENTERDEN, LORD. similar right to the king of France. Laymen who ABBOTT, REV. JACOB, a native of Maine, U.S., possessed monasteries were styled Secular Abbots; while their vicars, who discharged the duties, as was born in 1803, and graduated at Bowdoin College well as all abbots who belonged to the monastic in 1820. He is a remarkably voluminous writer, order, were styled Regular Abbots. In France, the abuse of appointing secular abbots was carried to a great extent previous to the time of the Revolution. (See ABBÉ.) Often monasteries themselves chose some powerful person as their secular abbot, with a view of 'commending' or committing their abbey to his protection (Abbés Commendataires). In countries which joined in the Reformation, the possessions of abbeys were mostly confiscated by the crown; but in Hanover, Brunswick, and Würtemberg, several monasteries and convents were retained as educational establishments. In the Greek Church, the superiors of convents are called Hegumeni or Mandrites, and general abbots, Archi

mandrites.

ABBOT, GEORGE, an English prelate under the Stuarts-chiefly remarkable for the position he held, and the part he acted, as the opponent of the policy of Laud and a despotic court-was the son of a cloth-manufacturer in Guildford, and was born 1562. After studying at Oxford, he was appointed chaplain to the Earl of Dunbar (1608), with whom he went to Scotland. This appointment was the basis of A.'s subsequent promotion. For a short time he held the see of Lichfield and Coventry, and in 1610 was made Archbishop of Canterbury. As a learned and able man, but more especially as a friend of toleration, he gained the esteem of all parties in an age of religious animosities. James I. employed the advice of A. in the most important affairs of state, and the prelate often opposed the arbitrary principles of the king. A.'s intolerance

and has acquired a large measure of popularity from the simplicity and earnestness of his thought. He has addressed himself principally to the young, and it is perhaps not too much to say, that of all works intended for the juvenile mind, his are the best in the English language. So thoughtful an instructor of youth even as Dr Arnold, speaks in high terms of The Way to do Good. Nearly all his and some have been translated into various European books have been repeatedly republished in England, and Asiatic languages. His most popular work is The Young Christian. Besides this, he has written The Franconia Stories; Histories of Celebrated Persons, 30 vols.; Harper's Story-books, 36 vols. ; &c.

ABBREVIATIONS are contrivances in writing for saving time and space. They are of two kinds, consisting either in the omission of some letters, or words, or in the substitution of some arbitrary sign. In the earliest times, when uncial or lapidary characters were used, abbreviations by omission prevailed, such as we find on the inscriptions on monuments, coins, &c. In these, the initial letter is often put instead of the whole word, as M. for Marcus, F. for Filius. It was after the small Greek and Roman letters had been invented by transcribers for facilitating their work, that signs of abbreviation, or characters representing double consonants, syllables, and whole words, came into use. Greek manuscripts abound with such signs, and often only one that has expressly studied Greek palæography can make them out. From the manuscripts, they passed into the early printed editions of Greek books, and it is only recently that they have quite disappeared. Among

ABBREVIATIONS.

D.D., Doctor of Divinity; Dono dedit.
D.G. (Dei Gratia), By the grace of God.
Do. (Ital. ditto, said'), The said; the same.
Dr, Doctor, or Debtor.
D.V. (Deo Volente), God willing.
dwt., penny-weight.

e.g., or ex. gr. (Exempli Gratiâ), For example.
Etc. (Et cætera), And the rest; and so on.
F.A.S., Fellow of the Antiquarian Society.
F.B.S., Fellow of the Botanical Society.
F.D. (Fidei Defensor), Defender of the Faith.
F.G.S., Fellow of the Geological Society.
F.L.S., Fellow of the Linnean Society.
F.M., Field-marshal.

F.R.A.S., Fellow of the Royal Astronomical, or of
F.R.C.P., Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians.
the Royal Asiatic Society.
F.R.C.S., Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons.
F.R.G.S., Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society.
E., of England.
F.R.S., Fellow of the Royal Society. L., London;
F.R.S.S.A., Fellow of the Royal Scottish Society of
E., Edinburgh.
Arts.

the Romans, signs of abbreviation were called nota, and professed scribes who employed them were notarii. To such an extent was the system carried, that L. Annæus Seneca collected and classified 5000 abbreviations. The same practice has prevailed in all languages, but nowhere more than in the Rabbinical writings.-The abbreviations used by the ancient Romans were continued and increased in the middle ages. They occur in inscriptions, manuscripts, and legal documents; and the practice continued in these last long after the invention of printing had made it unnecessary in books. An act of parliament was passed in the reign of George II., forbidding the use of abbreviations in legal documents. Owing to these abbreviations, the deciphering of old writings requires special study and training, and forms a separate science called Diplomatic (q. v.), on which numerous treatises have been written." Nouveau Traité de Diplomatique (6 vols., Par. Tassin's 1750-65) contains, in the third volume, an exposition of Roman abbreviations. the subject are-Gatterer's Abriss der Diplomatik Other works on (2 vols., Gott. 1798); Pertz's Schrifttafeln (4 Nos., Hannov. 1846); and Kopp's Palæographica Critica (4 vols., Manh. 1817-29). In ordinary writing and printing, few abbreviations are now employed. The sign &, originally an abbreviation for the Lat. et, 'and,' is perhaps the only one of the arbitrary kind still to be met with. It does not stand properly for a word, for it is used in different languages, but for an idea, and is as much a symbol as +. The abbreviations by using the initials of Latin words that are still in use, are chiefly confined to titles, dates, and a few phrases; as, M.A. (magister artium), Master of Arts; A.D. (anno domini), in the year of our Lord; e.g. (exempli gratia), for example. Many are now formed from English words in the same way; as, F.G.S., Fellow of the Geo-I.C.TH.U.S. (xbus), Iesous Christos, Theou Huios, logical Society; B.C., before Christ.-Most of the sciences and arts have sets of signs of abbreviation, or symbols, peculiar to themselves. These are of great use both for brevity and clearness. CHEMICAL SYMBOLS, &c.

See

F.S.A., Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries.
F.S.S., Fellow of the Statistical Society.
F.Z.S., Fellow of the Zoological Society.
F.S.A.Scot., Do. of Scotland.
G.C.B., (Knight) Grand Cross of the Bath.
G.C.H., (Knight) Grand Cross of Hanover.
G.C.M.G., (Knight) Grand Cross of St Michael and
Gr., Greek; Lat., Latin; Ital., Italian; &c.
H.E.I.C.S., Hon. East India Company's Service.
St George.
H.M.S., His or Her Majesty's Service, or Ship.
H.R.H., His or Her Royal Highness.
Ib. or Ibid. (Ibidem), In the same place.

Id. (Idem), The same; (Idus), The Ides.
i.e. (Id est), That is.
Soter-Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the Saviour.

I.H.S.* Iesus Hominum Salvator, Jesus the Saviour
of men; In hâc (Cruce) Salus, In this (cross)
salvation.

The following is a list of the more important Incog. (Incognito, Ital.), Unknown.

Abbreviations in general use:

Abp., Archbishop.

A.C. (Ante Christum), Before Christ.

A.D. (Anno Domini), In the year of our Lord.
A.H. (Anno Hegira), In the year of the Hegira.
A.M. (Ante Meridiem), Before noon; (Anno Mundi),
In the year of the world.

A.R.A., Associate of the Royal Academy (London).
A.R.S.A., Associate of the Royal Scottish Academy.
A.U.C. (Ab Urbe Condita), From the building of the
city-that is, Rome.

B.A. or A.B. (Artium Baccalaureus), Bachelor of
Arts.

Bart. or Bt., Baronet.

B.C., Before Christ.

B.C.L., Bachelor of Civil Law.

B.D., Bachelor of Divinity.

B.M., Bachelor of Medicine.

Bp., Bishop.

C. (Centum), A hundred; chapter.

C.A., Chartered Accountant.

Cantab. (Cantabrigiensis), of Cambridge.

C.B., Companion of the Bath.

C.E., Civil Engineer.

C.M.G., Companion of the Order of St Michael and

St George.

Cr., Creditor.

Crim. Con., Criminal conversation.

Ct., Count.

cwt., Hundredweight.

D.C.L., Doctor of Civil Law.

I.N.R.I. (Iesus Nazarenus Rex Iudæorum), Jesus of
Nazareth, king of the Jews.

Inst. (Instante mense understood), Instant, of the
present (month); Institute.

L.P.D. (In Præsentia Dominorum), In presence of the
Lords (of Session).

J.P., Justice of the Peace.
J.C. (Juris Consultus), Juris-consult.

J.V. (or U.) D. (Juris Utriusque Doctor), Doctor
K.B., Knight of the Bath.
both of Civil and of Canon Law.
Kal. (Kalenda or Kalendis), The Kalends.

K.C.B., Knight Commander of the Bath.

K.C.H., Knight Commander of the Order of Han

over.

K.C.M.G., Knight Commander of St Michael and St
George.

K.G., Knight of the Garter.

K.H., Knight of Hanover.

K.M., Knight of Malta.

K.P., Knight of St Patrick.

K.T., Knight of the Thistle.

Κ. τ. λ., Και τα λειπομενα (Και ta leipomena), same as
'Et cætera.'

This was originally IHZ, the first three Greek letters of the name Jesus; but its origin having been lost sight of, by substituting S for 2, and then mistaking the Gr. H (eta) for Lat. H, a signification was subsequently found out for each letter. The symbol was still further altered by converting the horizontal stroke, which was the usual sign of abbreviation, into a cross, as it now generally appears, IЯS.

ABBREVIATIONS—ABD-EL-KADER.

Ult. (Ullimo-mense understood), In the last power of A. now spread in an alarming way. In (month).

V.D.M. (Verbi Dei Minister), Preacher of the Titèri acknowledged A. as their sultan; the more

Ye, Y'; The, That. (This use of Y originated in the General Tretzel led to that fatal retreat, during

ABDICATION-ABDOMEN.

which the French army was attacked at Makta,
on June 28, 1835, by the whole assembled forces of
A., amounting to nearly 20,000 cavalry, and suffered
a disgraceful defeat.

After a protracted struggle of six years, A. found
himself obliged (1841) to take refuge in Marocco.
Here he succeeded in getting up a sort of crusade
against the enemies of Islam; and the arms of
France were now turned against Marocco for the
countenance given to A. After the decisive battle
of Isly (1844) the sultan was obliged to give up A.'s
cause, but soon found that the latter was at least
his equal in power, and that he could not even pre-
vent him from marching out of Nedem to attack the
French again, both in October 1845, and in March
1847. But the star of A. was now about to set. In
the night of the 11th December, he made a bold attack
on the Moorish camp, in which he was defeated, and
had to resolve on flight. He might easily have
secured his own safety, but he would not abandon
his attached followers, men, women, and children,
to the plunder and massacre of the Maroccans.
After a heroic combat on the 21st December, he
effected their retreat across the Muluia into the
territory of Algerie, where they mostly surrendered
to the French. He himself, with a few horsemen,
resolved to fight his way through to the south; but
coming to the Pass of Kerbous, he found the
way closed, and was received with musketry. Dis-
pirited at length, A. surrendered, on December
22, 1847, to General Lamoricière and the Duc
d'Aumale, upon condition that he should be per-
mitted to withdraw either to Egypt or to St Jean
d'Acre. The French government refused to ratify
this agreement. A. was sent with his family to
Toulon, whence he was removed in 1848 to Pau, and
finally to the Chateau d'Amboise.
1852 by Louis Napoleon, he lived at Brussa, in Asia
Liberated in
Minor, till its destruction by an earthquake in 1855.
He then, for a time, lived in Constantinople, but
finally made his home in Damascus. He was of
great service to humanity during the Syrian mas-
sacres of 1860.
England, and was present at the Paris Exhibition
In 1865, he visited Paris and
in 1867. In his retirement he wrote a religious
work, a translation of which was published at Paris,
1858, under the title, Rappel à l'Intelligent: avis à
l'Indifferent.

ABDICATION is the act of giving up an office, generally the office of ruler or sovereign. It is rarely done out of pure preference of a private station, but is generally the result of vexation and disappointment. It was perhaps voluntarily, and from being wearied with dominion, that Diocletian, and along with him Maximian, abdicated (305). Christina of Sweden retired from the throne (1654) out of preference for the freedom of private life, but wished still to exercise the rights of a sovereign. Charles V. laid down the crown (1556) because his great schemes had failed. Philip V. of Spain did so (1724) in a fit of melancholy, but resumed it on the death of his son. Amadeus of Savoy abdicated (1494) to become a priest. Victor Amadeus of Sardinia, who abdicated in 1730, wished to recall the step, but was not allowed. Louis Bonaparte resigned the crown of Holland, because he would not consent to treat that country as a province of France. Charles Emanuel of Sardinia retired from the throne in 1802, not finding himself equal to the crisis; and the same was the case with Victor Emanuel in 1819. William I. of the Netherlands resigned (1840), as his policy had become impossible from the turn of affairs in Belgium. Foreign force compelled the abdication of Augustus of Poland (1707), and later, that of Stanislaus Leszczynski (1735) and of Poniatowski (1795); as well as that of Charles IV. of Spain

8

(1808), and of Napoleon (1814 and 1815). Insurrections have been the most frequent cause of forced abdications. The early history of the Scandinavian compulsory abdication of Richard II. (1399) is an early example. In the case of James II., it was kingdoms abounds in instances. In England, the disputed whether the king had abdicated' or (1830) and Louis-Philippe (1848) retire before the storm of revolution, without the conditions they deserted.' More recent times saw Charles X. made being regarded. The abdication of Ferdinand of Austria (1848) was an indirect consequence of the events of the year of revolutions; that of Charles Albert of Sardinia (1849), of the battle of Novara. Of several cases among German princes, the chief is that of Ludwig of Bavaria (1848). A late instance is that of Amadeus, king of Spain, who felt himself obliged to give up his crown, on the 11th of February 1873.

he pleases; but in England, the constitutional relation between the crown and the nation being of the nature In some countries, the king can abdicate whenever of a contract, the king or queen, it is considered, cannot abdicate without the consent of parliament. It is, however, said that the king does abdicate, or, to speak perhaps more correctly, an A. may be presumed, and acted on by the people, if his conduct politically and overtly is inconsistent with, and subversive of, the system of constitutional government, of which the qualified monarchy of his office forms part.

Parliament previous to the passing of the statute which settled the crown on William III., it would At the conference between the two Houses of appear that the word 'abdicated' with reference to King James II. was advisedly used instead of that King James had not only deserted his office, deserted-the meaning, it is presumed, being but that by his acts and deeds, of which the said desertion formed part, he had, in view of the constitution, ceased to have right to the throne. From this it may be inferred that A. was considered to maladministration as well as desertion. The Scotch have a twofold political signification, involving Convention, however, more vigorously and distinctly resolved that King James had forefaulted [forfeited] the crown, and the throne was become

vacant.'

divided by the diaphragm into two cavities-the
upper being the thorax or chest, and the under, the
ABDO'MEN. The trunk of the human body is
abdomen or belly. Both the cavity and the viscera

1
2......

11.......

10

11

12

Organs of the Abdomen.

4. Right Lobe of Liver.
1. Diaphragm. 2. Gall-bladder. 3. Pyloric end of Stomach.
11. Great Intestine (Colon). 12. Small Intestine (Ilium).
Stomach.
5. Duodenum.
7. Spleen. 8. Piece of Caul, or Omentum.
6. Great end of
9. Pancreas (Sweetbread). 10. Small Intestine (Jejunum).