·

BAGGAGE-BAGLIVI.

are married with their officers' consent a small number in every regiment-are allowed one small chest each of definite size, which may be carried on a march, but at the men's own expense. Staffsergeants and pay-sergeants have similar permission. The B.-wagons are not expected to receive packages weighing more than 400 lbs. each, or as much as four men can lift. Officers' B. is, of course, much more considerable in amount than that of the non-commissioned officers and privates. On board troop-ships, the weight to be carried for each person is strictly defined-from 18 cwt. for a fieldofficer, down to 1 cwt. for a married private soldier, with his wife and children. In encampments, whether permanent or temporary, and in armies on field-service, the utmost care is taken to preserve the B. from the enemy, by surrounding it as much as possible with defensive troops.

individual houses corresponds with the repulsive aspect of the streets. They have, in general, no windows towards the front, and are built of old brick; but their interior is often very gorgeously decorated. The vaulted ceilings, rich mouldings, inlaid mirrors, and massive gilding, bring back to the recollection of the traveller the golden time of good Harun Al-Raschid.' B. contains upwards of 100 mosques. These, together with the khans, bazaars, and the palace of the governor, are the only noticeable buildings in the city. The domes and minarets are said to be finer than those of Constantinople, and are beautifully painted. The bazaars exhibit the produce of both Turkish and European markets; but commerce has greatly decreased since Persia began to trade with Europe by way of Trebizonde on the north, and by the Persian Gulf on the south. Nevertheless, though no longer the chief emporium of merchandise between East and West Asia, and though robber Kurds and but who also has a place in German literature, was BA'GGESEN, JENS, a well-known Danish poet, Arabs lurk on all the roads that lead from the city, born at Korsör, in the island of Zealand, February B. still carries on a considerable traffic with Aleppo and Damascus, and has manufactures of red and 15, 1764. He first obtained a reputation by his yellow leather, silks, and cotton stuffs. The value of Comic Tales (1785), the opera Holger Danske (1790), goods that passed through the custom-house at B., in as well as by his odes and songs. Through the kind 1874-1875, was £452,498. Of the 60,000 inhabitants, assistance of the Prince of Augustenburg, he was the greater part are Turks and Arabs; the remainder enabled, in 1789, to make a tour through Germany, are Jews, Armenians, Hindus, Afghans, and Persians. Switzerland, and France. In 1811, he was appointed In summer, the heat is oppressive; rain does not professor of Danish language and literature at Kiel; fall on more than twenty or thirty days throughout in 1814, he removed to Copenhagen, where he the whole year; but when the snows melt on the became involved in an unseemly strife with ÖhlenArmenian hills, the Tigris becomes a majestic, and schläger, and in 1820 he left his native country often a destructive river. In 1831, an inundation altogether. Some years later, a home-sickness destroyed one half of the town, and several thou-seized him, and he set out on his return, but died sand lives. The plague visits it periodically once curious compound of pride and humility, love and at Hamburg, October 3, 1826. B.'s nature was a every ten years. In 1831, 4000 people perished daily for several days from its ravages! B. is hate, sensitiveness and reflective power, free-thinkfrequently chosen by Mohammedans of the Shiah ing and faith; and these conflicting qualities also sect as a permanent place of residence. Several appear in his poems, which possess an unfinished steamers now ply on the Tigris to and from B.; and and inharmonious character. In 1803 appeared at here is one of the chief stations of the Anglo- Hamburg a collection of his German poems; in Indian telegraph. 1806, he published an idyllic epic, entitled Parthenais oder Alpenreise, in twelve cantos, and written in hexameters, which greatly increased his reputation. It contains single passages of great beauty. B. possessed no lyrical talent, in spite of his warm-hearted and enthusiastic character. Only a very few of his songs exhibit that simplicity and tenderness which are the essential requisites of songwriting; and, besides, they are almost all destitute of originality. Klopstock was the model whom he had in view in the composition of his odes; but he was far from reaching the level of his master. The sphere in which he shone most conspicuously was the serio-comic. His 'humorous epic' (as he called it) of Adam and Eve, published shortly after his death, is a singular mixture of humour, pathos, levity, and earnestness. He left in manuscript a poem of a similar character on the subject of Faust. His Poetical Works in the German Lan

B. was founded by the Abbaside calif Almansur, 762-766 A.D. It was built out of the ruins of Ctesiphon and Seleucia. In the 9th C., it was greatly enlarged by Harun Al-Raschid, who erected numerous edifices on the east side of the Tigris, and connected its two banks by a bridge of boats. The palace, built for himself, and the tomb of his favourite wife, Zobeide, are said to have been of extraordinary splendour. A hundred years later, B. was ravaged by the Turks. In 1253, the grand son of Genghis Khan, Hulaku, put an end to the old califate; but the descendants of this Tatar conqueror were expelled by Timur, who took the city in 1393. After several vicissitudes, it remained in the possession of a Turkoman chief, whose dynasty governed until 1470. In the beginning of the 16th c., Shah Ismael, the founder of the Suffide dynasty in Persia, made himself master of it; since which period it has repeatedly been a bone of contention between Turks and Persians. After a memorably obstinate siege, it was conquered by the sultan, Murad IV., in 1638. Nadir Shah vainly essayed to retake it in the 18th c., and ever since it has been under the sway of the Porte.

BA'GGAGE, in the marching arrangements of the British army, is placed under strict rules, in order that the accumulation of weight may not impede the movement of the troops; and rules of an analogous kind are enforced in troop-ships, when soldiers are on a voyage. The term itself is made to apply chiefly to articles of clothing, and to small personal effects. A private soldier is allowed to carry nothing except that which his knapsack and other accoutrements can hold; but those who

guage (Leip. 1836, 5 vols.) have been published by his son, who has prefixed to them an excellent biography.

BAGLI'VI, GEORGE, a celebrated Italian physician, born at Ragusa in September 1669. The incidents of his life are almost entirely confined to his professional career. Originally descended from an Armenian family, he took the name of his adoptive father, who was a wealthy physician of Lucca, and who bestowed on him an excellent education. He studied at Salerno, Padua, and Bologna, and afterwards visited the principal hospitals of Italy. In 1692 he went to Rome, where he enjoyed the anatomical prelections of his friend Malpighi. Shortly after, he was appointed professor of anatomy at the college of La Sapienza, Rome, where he died in

BAGNARA-BAGRATION.

years; 2239 to 11-20 years; 282 to 20-30; 1965 for life. The principal crime was theft, for 41 to 30-40; 23 to 40-50; 9 to above 50; and which 4750 had been condemned; for murder, 1027. The greater proportion of the criminals, viz. 4595, were from the rural districts; from towns, 2452; foreigners, 643; most of them were of the age between 20 and 40; and 3902 were unable to read or write. The most numerous class were husbandmen, threshers, gardeners, 1278; next, day-labourers, pardons to convicts in 1848 was 90; in 1849, 52. In and terrassiers (navvies?) 1078. 1852 the imperial government decreed the supThe number of pression of the B., and substituted in their place deportation to Guiana. But in case any of the deportation a greater punishment than what they prisoners then in the B. might have considered were condemned to, it was resolved to give them ported: 3000 chose transportation. the choice of remaining in prison or of being trans

1706. His great discovery in medical science is the system of solidism,' as it is called. the time of B., physicians had held the doctrine Previous to of Hippocrates in reference to the primary seat of diseases-viz., that it is in the fluids. B. came to the conclusion that this was erroneous, and that the real seat of disease is in the solids. His reasons are, on the whole, sound, and the doctrine is now all but universally prevalent, though it is admitted that cases do occur in which the fluids appear to have been first affected. treatises of great merit, in which his then novel He published several views were explained. B. was very honest and independent in his judgment, and used to warn his profession against a blind adherence to mere dogmas on matters which were but imperfectly known. BAGNA'RA, a seaport town of South Italy, on the Gulf of Gioja, 16 miles N.E. of Reggio. wine is produced in the neighbourhood. Pop. 6229. Excellent BAGNERES, the name of two towns in the Pyrenees, France, both well known as watering. places.-B. DE BIGORRE on the Adour, in the department of the High Pyrenees, is situated at the base of Montalivet, and at the entrance to the romantic valley of Campan. Besides its extensive bathing-houses, it has a college, a theatre, a Pyrenean museum, a trades-hall, and contains (1872) 7239 inhabitants. By the Romans it was 18th c., was common in almost every country in BA'GPIPE, a wind instrument, which, up to the known as Vicus Aquensis or Aqua Bigerronum. It Europe, and still continues in use among the was destroyed by the Goths, but the fame of its country people in Poland, Italy, Sicily, the south waters survived, and is now so great that it is visited of France, Scotland, &c.; but being far from a by about 20,000 strangers yearly. The tepid, warm, sweet-toned instrument, and limited in its range and hot saline springs are numerous, and are recom- of notes, it has fallen into disuse wherever there mended for cutaneous and nervous diseases. Wool- is any pretension to musical refinement. It conlens, linens, and barèges are manufactured here.-B. DE LUCHON-the Aqua Convenarum of the Romans -is situated in the department of Upper Garonne, and in a pleasant valley watered by the Pique. Its cold, tepid, and hot sulphurous waters are recommended in rheumatism, gout, cutaneous diseases, and paralysis. It has a pop. of (1872) 3750.

In

BAGNES, the convict-prisons of France. ancient times, the severest punishment, next to death, was that of the galleys (q. v.). In 1748, these were abolished, and the convicts were employed in hard labour in arsenals and other public works; and the prisons in which they were lodged were called bagnes, from the Italian bagno, literally, a bath-a name supposed to have originated in the fact, that the slave-prisons at Constantinople contained baths, or because they stood near the baths of the seraglio. 1791 and 1792 mitigated the sufferings of convicts, The Constituent Assembly of and substituted for the detested name galères, that of travaux publics, to which succeeded the travaux forcés of the Code Napoleon. The practice of branding criminals with a hot iron was not abolished till 1832. The latest existing institutions of this class were at Toulon, Brest, and Rochefort, at which the number of convicts, in 1850, was respectively 3873, 2831, and 986. In these establishments, the labour of the convicts was turned to profitable account, and the various handicrafts were taught in the prison under the direction of overseers. The industrious and clever were enabled to earn small wages, and good behaviour was rewarded with a gradual relaxation of restraint. Formerly the punishment of the galleys was inflicted for comparatively slight offences, such as removing landmarks, begging, poaching, &c., but hard labour in the B. was reserved exclusively for such as commit crimes which seriously menace the public peace and personal safety. The number of these, how ever, is not less than 51. (forçats) in 1850, 3070 were condemned to 5-10 Of 7689 convicts

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the canton of Valais, Switzerland, on the left bank BAGNES-LE-CHABLE, a parish and village in of the Dranse. The parish occupies the whole valley of the Bagne. Pop. (1870) 4254. The valley was twice inundated during the 16th c.; again in 1818, when 400 cottages were swept away, and 34 lives lost.

sists of a leathern bag, which the player inflates by blowing with his mouth through a tube. The music proceeds from three or four pipes, whose mouth-pieces are inserted into the bag; the wind being forced out by pressing the bag under the arm. One of the pipes, the chanter, is a kind of oboe with eight holes, and is similarly handled; the low note. It is certain that the bagpipe was in use others, called drones, sound each only one continuous among the Hebrews and Greeks, and there are plenty of proofs that in Germany and elsewhere in Europe it was among the most favourite instruments in the 15th c.

still a popular instrument in the Highlands of Though fallen generally into disuse, the B. is Highlanders, and even of Lowland Scotch, in Scotland, and wherever there are gatherings of costume are also attached to the Highland regiEngland and other countries. ments, and in some instances pipers are retained Pipers in proper by Scottish noblemen to play on festive occasions. Highland societies, which, at periodical competiSkill in playing the B. is promoted by various tions, give prizes to the best players of pibrochs (q. v.), reels, and other airs.

Russian general, descended from the noble family of the Bagradites of Georgia and Armenia, was born in BAGRATION, PETER, PRINCE, a distinguished 1756. He entered the Russian service in 1783, and engaged at the storming of Oczakow; fought in 1792 was trained under Suwarrow. and 1794 against the Poles; in 1799, in Italy In 1788 he was and Switzerland; and distinguished himself in the especially in the sanguinary engagement of NovemAustro-Russian war of 1805 against the French, ber 16 of that year, when, with a small body of troops, he bravely stood during six hours opposed to the superior forces under Murat, and thus enabled the Russian general, Kutusow, to reach Znaym with engaged in the battles of Austerlitz, Eylau, and the main army. Subsequently, Prince B. was

BAGSHOT BEDS-BAHAR.

Friedland, and took a part in the Russian campaign against the Turks, especially in the battle of Silistria, 1809. In the campaign of 1812, he commanded the second Russian army of the west, and had the misfortune to fail in his attack on Davoust near Mohilew; but succeeded in forming a junction with the west army at Smolensk. He was, however, mortally wounded in the battle of Mosaisk, and died October 7, 1812.

length from north-west to south-east of about 550 miles; and it rests mainly on two shoals-the Great Bank to the south, and the Little Bank to the north. There are upwards of 3000 islands and rocks, but only about 30 of any size. The chief members of the group, if reckoned from the N.W., are these: Great Bahama; Abaco; Eleuthera ; New Providence; Andros; Guanahani or Cat Island, or San Salvador; Watling's Island; Exuma; Long Island; Crooked Islands; Maricuana; Inagua; Little Inagua; Caicos; Turk's Island.

BA'GSHOT BEDS, the lowest series of strata in the Middle Eocene formation of Britain. The name is derived from Bagshot Heath in Surrey, The area is 3021 square miles; and in 1871 the population was 39,162. The population of Turk's where they were first examined; but, as they are more fully developed and better seen in the Isle of Island, officially separate from the B., is 4723. The Wight, the rocks there are now considered the revenue of the B. in 1874 was £36,573; the expenditure, £36,627. The value of the total imports in typical representatives of the series. The strata are arranged into four groups: 1. The Upper B. B., 1873 was £226,306; of the exports, £156,613. composed of yellow and white sands with ferru-The islands generally are of reef-like shape, long, narrow, and low. With very little appearance of ginous stains, generally unfossiliferous, though a remarkable exception exists at Whitecliff Bay, Isle soil, they derive considerable fertility from the of Wight, where a bed contains a large number of tendency of the porous rock to retain moisture. Besides excellent pasturage, they yield guinea-corn, very friable shells. 2. The Barton beds, consisting of coloured clays interstratified with sand and maize, cotton, pine-apples, lemons, oranges, pimento, loam. They are rich in fossils, chiefly the shells of and a species of cinnamon. In the larger islands, mollusca, but contain also the remains of a fish and too, there is excellent timber. Cotton cultivation several reptiles. Here, too, the Nummulite (q. v.), received a great impulse during the American civil so characteristic of the Tertiary formations, makes war. During the summer, the temperature ranges its first appearance in a descending order. This from 73° to 93° F.; but in the winter the climate is genus dies out with the Nummulites variolaris, the so delightfully temperate as to be generally presmall species found in these beds. 3. The Brack-scribed in the United States for pulmonary comlesham beds, so called from their extensive develop-plaints. The annual fall of rain is from 43 to 45 ment at Bracklesham Bay, near Chichester in December, but pretty equally distributed over the inches, being heaviest in October, November, and Sussex, are composed of marly clays and white other months. On October 1, 1866, a furious and sands, capped by a bed of flint-pebble conglomer- most destructive cyclone visited the Bahamas. ate, and resting on dark carbonaceous clays. This is the most highly fossiliferous group in the series. Two species of plants have been noticed. The remains of 6 reptiles and 21 fishes have been described, besides a long list of mollusca, amongst which is the magnificent Cerithium (q. v.) giganteum, so conspicuous in the Calcaire grossier of Paris, where it is sometimes two feet in length. The prevalence of genera now only known as inhabitants of tropical or sub-tropical seas, such as volutes and cowries, together with their companion lunulites and corals, makes it highly probable that a warm climate prevailed during the deposition of these strata. 4. The Lower B. B., consisting of alternations of variously coloured sands with gray, chocolate-coloured, or white pipe-clays. The white clays contain the only fossil organisms found in this group-beautifully preserved leaves spread out in the layers of the clay.

The series rests on the true London clay.

maximum thickness is about 1200 feet.

Its

BA'GUL, or BHA'GUL, a small state in Northwest India, on the south or left bank of the Sutlej. B. is one of the native states in feudal subordination to the Punjab government. Pop. estimated (1872) at 22,000. Its lat. is about 31° N., and long. 77° E. The surface is generally mountainous, presenting two summits, Bahadurgarh and Bara Devi, respectively 6233 and 7003 feet above the sea. supposed gross revenue of £6000, pays 3600 rupees as tribute, and has 222 men under arms.

B. has a

BAHA'MAS, or LUCAY'OS, a chain of islands stretching in a north-west direction from the neighbourhood of the north coast of Hayti to that of the east coast of Florida. From Florida they are separated by the channel through which flows the Gulf Stream (q. v.); and from Cuba, by the Old Bahama Channel. These are the principal passages between the open ocean and the Gulf of Mexico. The chain extends in N. lat. from 20° 55' to 27° 31', and in W. long. from 72° 40′ to 79° 5', having an entire

The B. were Columbus's earliest discovery. But the precise spot of his first landing has not been been believed to be the San Salvador of Columbus; ascertained. Guanahani or Cat Island has generally but recent investigations appear to have transferred the honour to Watling's Island, situated a little further to the east. The B. having been depopulated, but not again colonised, by the Spaniards, were various vicissitudes of fortune in the wars with occupied by the English in 1629-to whom, after Spain and France, they were ultimately secured by the treaty of 1783. Nassau, in New Providence, is the seat of government, and has recently been American civil war, Nassau became the station for greatly improved both as town and port. During the vessels about to run the blockade of the southern ports, and thence derived unexampled prosperity; and so far as agriculture is concerned, the impulse then received has been maintained by the Bahamas.

BAHA'R (also spelt Behar and Bihar), one of the old Mohammedan provinces of India, occupying part of the valley of the Ganges, and named after its chief town, a city (see SUPP., Vol. X.) which in 1872 had a pop. of 44,295. B. is now one of the provinces of Lower Bengal, and is divided into the two commissionerships of Patna and Bhagulpore, which are again subdivided into 12 administrative districts. The area of the province is 42,417 square miles, and the pop. (1872) 19,736,101, giving an average of 553 persons to the sq. m. The name B. was also given to one of the administrative districts, now officially called Gayah. Roads and bridges can neither be well made nor thoroughly repaired, where, during nearly half the year, the surface of the country is inundated, and torn by innumerable torrents. In the dry season, the beds of the rivers present only detached pools. Among the minerals, the most important are coal and mica. The latter, nearly as pellucid as glass, is sometimes found in blocks, yielding plates of 36 inches by 18. Potatoes, cabbages, cauliflower, lettuces, turnips, &c., have

BAHIA-BALÆ

been introduced from Europe, and succeed well. Of indigenous productions, the most considerable are rice, pulse, sugar, cotton, indigo, and tobacco. The district is largely engaged in the manufacturing of muslins, silks, carpets, blankets, tents, tapes, threads, ropes, paper, glass, cutlery, jewellery, leather, ink, soap, and pottery. Ardent spirits, too, are extensively distilled from the flowers of the Bassia latifolia (q. v.) Before the days even of Moslem domination, B. appears to have been the centre of a Hindu empire, which native accounts describe as of matchless splendour, and of fabulous duration.

The

a professor in 1826. Previous to this, he had occupied himself chiefly with the elucidation and criticism of Plutarch, the result of which was an annotated edition of Alcibiades (Heid. 1822), and of Philopoemen, Flaminius, Pyrrhus (Leip. 1826). At the same time, he collected and published the frag ments of Ctesias. But a greater interest was excited by his History of Roman Literature (1828), which is noted for its clearness and comprehensiveness. Three supplements to this work also appeared: Christian Poets and Historians of Rome (1836), The Christian-Roman Theology (1837), and the History of Roman Literature in the Carlovingian Period (1840). One of his most important works is his version of Herodotus (1832-1835). In 1835, he published his De Universitate Constantinopoli Quinto Sæculo Conditâ. He likewise contributed num and other works. He died 27th November 1872. erous articles to Jahn's Jahrbücher für Philologie,

BAHRDT, KARL FRIEDRICH, a German theo

BAHI'A, capital of the Brazilian province of the same name. It is otherwise called San Salvador the more usual term being taken from Bahia de Todos-os-Santos, or Bay of All Saints, on which it is situated, in lat. 13' 1' S., and long. 38° 32′ W. B. contained, in 1874, 152,000 inhabitants, pretty equally divided between whites, blacks, and mulattoes. B. has an exchange, arsenal, and imperial dock-logian of the extreme sceptical school, was born, yard, besides many ecclesiastical and public institutions; and is the point of departure for a railway line. It is connected by submarine telegraph with Pernambuco, Para, and Rio. The value of imports of foreign goods into B., in 1874, was £1,455,985; and the value of exports in the same year, £1,384,349. The chief exports of B. are sugar, cotton, coffee, tobacco, rice, rum, dye-stuffs, fancy woods, cocoa-nuts, horns, hides, diamonds, and bullion; and it imports manufactured goods, provisions, flour, salt, iron, glass, and wines. B. is the oldest city in Brazil, having been founded by the first captain-general of the country, and was long the capital of the colony. As a port, B. is unrivalled.

BAHIA, a province of Brazil, about the middle of the coast, taking its name from its chief city. It extends in S. lat. from 10° to 16°, and in W. long. from 37° to 44°. Pop. in 1873 was 1,450,000. The wealth of B., consisting in valuable timber, in rich mines of gold, silver, copper, lead, iron, in deposits of potash, alum, &c., is in great measure lost for want of good roads. The interior contains lofty sierras; but the maritime districts are fertile, being well watered by the Itapicuru, Contas, and other rivers. Besides the streams that flow through B., the San Francisco, a vastly larger river, forms about half of the inland boundary, dividing this province

from that of Pernambuco.

BAHI'A HO'NDA, a harbour on the north coast of Cuba, 60 miles west-south-west of Havana, protected by a fort, and formerly much resorted to by privateers and slavers.

BAHNA'SA, or BEHNE'SEH, a town of Central Egypt, on the Bahr Yousef (Joseph's Canal). It is noteworthy as the site of the ancient Oxyrynchus, celebrated for its numerous monasteries, the ruins of which are still to be seen.

BAHR, an Arabic word signifying a large body of water, is applied both to lakes and rivers.-BAHREL-ABIAD (the White River), and BAHR-EL-AZRAK (the Blue River), are the chief branches of the Nile (q. v.).-BAHR-ASSAL is Lake Assal (q.v.).BAHR-BELA-MA (the Sea without Water), a long, deep valley in the desert, west from Cairo. It is completely barren, but has the appearance of having been once a water-course.

BÄHR, JOH. CHRISTIAN FELIX, an eminent German philologer and critic, was born, 1798, at Darmstadt. He was educated at the Heidelberg gymnasium and university, where he gained the favour and friendship of Creuzer, whose symbolic system of interpretation in mythological matters he himself pursued at a later period. He was elected

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1741, at Bischofswerda, in Saxony, and studied at Leipsic, where he soon displayed extraordinary talents, and some restlessness of disposition. His early theological writings betrayed the sceptical tendencies which were afterwards more fully developed. On account of his immoral conduct, however, he was, in 1768, compelled to leave Leipsic, where he had been a popular preacher. In Erfurt, his next residence, he was appointed professor of Philosophy and Hebrew Antiquities, and wrote Letters on a Systematic Theology, and Aspirations of a Mute Patriot, two works whose heterodoxy involved him in controversies, and made his position untenable. In 1771, he went to Giessen, where he delivered theological lectures, and preached with approbation. His translation of the New Testament was regarded as so dangerous, that the author was deprived of the privilege of teaching. His creed, in fact, was simple Deism, and one of the chief points in his theology was his rejection of miracles. Even the immortality of the soul was not positively maintained in his works. Ultimately, after attempting to establish various institutions, he was reduced to the position of a tavern-keeper; and as he still persevered in his attacks on orthodoxy, he was imprisoned for one year at Magdeburg, where he wrote an autobiography. Among his others works are-The Religious Edict (a satire on the Prussian religious edict of 1788), and The German Union. He died at Halle, April 23, 1792.

BAHREI'N ISLANDS, or AVÂL ISLANDS, a group of islands lying in the Persian Gulf. The 27 miles long, and 10 broad. most important of these is Bahrein, or Avál, about centre, but the soil generally is fertile, and produces It is hilly in the dates, figs, and other eastern fruit, besides wheat and barley. Bahrein is badly cultivated. Springwater is plentiful in the interior, but on the coast it can only be procured from the bottom of the sea, where it springs up quite fresh, and is brought up by divers in skins. Manama, the capital, in lat. 26° 12′ N., and long. 50° 39′ E., has a good harbour on the north, but a safer though smaller one on the south. The B. I. are chiefly remarkable for their pearl-fisheries, which were known in ancient times, and which employ, during the season, from 2000 to 3000 boats, each manned with from 8 to 20 men. The annual value of the pearls is estimated at from £200,000 to £300,000. Tortoise-shell, shark-fins, and dates are also articles of export. The islands, which have been subject to a good many political changes, are now inhabited by Arabs. Pop. 68,000.

BAI'Æ, a small town of antiquity, on the coast of Campania, 10 miles west of Naples, where the

BAIKAL-BAIL.

being that the party arrested or imprisoned is delivered into the hands of those who bind themselves for his forthcoming, in order that he may be protected from prison until he has to make his personal appearance; and, in this sense, it differed from the old term, mainprize, now obsolete, and which signified a mere security without any other or corresponding guarantee, as in the case of bail. A technical and necessary distinction is taken in law-books between what is called common B., or B. to render to prison, and special B., or B. to the action; but for general information, the following statement of the law may suffice.

present castle of Baja stands. When the Roman the assumption of the custody of the arrested or empire was in its greatest splendour, the beauty imprisoned party by his B., the meaning of the rule of its situation, the fineness of the surrounding scenery, and the excellence of its mineral springs, made B. such a favourite resort of the Roman nobles, that for want of space for their baths and villas they encroached on the sea. Julius Cæsar, Piso, Pompey, Marius, Julia Mammæa, and others, had country-houses at Baiæ. Horace preferred B. to all other places in the world. Seneca warned every one who desired to maintain dominion over his passions, to avoid this watering-place. Cicero thought it necessary to excuse himself for undertaking the defence of Marcus Coelius, a man who had often visited B., for B. was considered by the stricter moralists of those times as the abode of voluptuousness and luxury, and a den of vice. The ruins, still standing on the desolate coast, or rising from the sea, are now the only evidence of the former magnificence of B., whose population, dwelling in mean hovels, only amounts to 800. The ruins of three supposed temples-one of Venus, one of Mercury, and one of Diana Lucifera—as well as the remains of a few therma, or warm baths, still attract the attention of archeologists. The harbour, one of the largest belonging to the Romans, is now much destroyed. The surrounding country is covered with the ruins of Roman villas, sepulchral monuments, and other buildings.

19 miles across.

BAI'KAL (in Turkish, Bei-kul, i. e., Rich Lake) is, after the Caspian Sea and the Sea of Aral, the largest lake of Asia. It is a fresh-water lake, and is situated in the south of Siberia, in the gov. of Irkutsk, near the great military road between Moscow, Kiachta, and the mines of Nertschinsk. Lat. 51° 20′ to 55° 30′ N., long. 103° to 110° E. It somewhat resembles a sickle in shape, and varies considerably in breadth. Between the mouths of the Selenga and the Buguldeicha, it is only Its length is 370 miles, and its breadth 20 to 70 miles; height above the sea, 1363 feet; depth in centre very great. The Baikal Mountains, a spur of the Altai, enclose the lake, which is fed by numerous streams, the chief of which are the Selenga and Bargusin. Its outlet is by the Lower Angara, a chief tributary of the Yenisei; but the river is inconsiderable in size compared with those which flow into the lake. It has several islands, the largest of which, Olkon, has a length of 30 miles. B., which forms an important link in the chain of communication between Russia and China, has two commercial ports, and of recent years, steam-boats have given a considerable impetus to its trade. Its sturgeon and seal fisheries are valuable, and large quantities of a fish resembling a herring are also caught in it. A peculiar fish, called the golomynka (Callionymus Baicalensis), which is almost one mass of fat, yield ing beautiful train-oil, was at one time caught in immense numbers, but it is now much scarcer. The surface of the lake is frozen from November to April, but the traffic is carried on over the ice. Besides the Russians settled on the banks of the Selenga and Angara, the shores of Lake B. are also inhabited by tribes of the Burates and Tunguses.

BAIL is a technical term in the practice of the law both in England and Scotland, with this difference, that, in England, it is used both in civil and criminal procedure, whereas in Scotland it is applied exclusively to the latter. By B. is understood the security given by sufficient sureties for the appearance in court on a day, and at a place certain, of a person arrested or imprisoned, and who, in consequence of such security or B., is in the meantime set at liberty. Such security, however, involves

In civil process, the sureties give their bail-bond to the sheriff himself for the appearance of the defendant, according to the exigency of the case, and for nothing else. It does not appear that any particular or limited number of sureties is to be taken; but it would seem that the sheriff may insist on more than two, provided they have only sufficient property within the county to answer the penalty; but if more than two be tendered, it is not necessary that each should be worth the full amount. On the other hand, the bail-bond will be good though there be only one surety; but in accepting such security it would seem that the sheriff does so at his own risk. If there is reasonthe sheriff has no discretion, but is bound to accept able ground for believing the sureties to be sufficient, the B.; and if he refuses to do so, he is liable to an

action.

The necessity of B., however, may be avoided by the defendant availing himself of the provisions of statutes which are re-enactments of older laws, by which it is enacted that the arrested or imprisoned party may obtain his immediate discharge by depositing with the sheriff the sum demanded by the plaintiff, together with £10 towards the cost, the same to remain in court to The enactment, abide the event of the suit. however, contains a proviso that it shall be lawful for a defendant who has made such deposit in payment, at any time in the progress of the cause, before issue joined, or final or interlocutory judgment, to receive out of court the sum so deposited and paid, upon putting in and perfecting special B., and paying such costs as the court shall direct; and, by another enactment of the same statute, provision is made for the case where a defendant who has put in B., afterwards elects to deposit the plaintiff's demand, and to pay the costs to abide the event of

the action.

As to those who may or may not be B., it would appear, from the nature of the security undertaken, because the engagement on the part of the B. being, that persons privileged from arrest cannot be B., in default of the principal party, to pay the debt or damages and costs, the plaintiff is entitled to require the security of persons who are amenable to the ordinary process of the courts. Therefore, peers, members of parliament, ambassadors, and other privileged persons, cannot become bail; nor, generally, can attorneys or those employed in executing the process. But persons who are not in such a position, but who are either housekeepers or freeholders, may be taken as bail. The possession of leasehold property is not enough, unless the party is also a housekeeper; but the real owner of a freehold estate, however small it may be, situated within the jurisdiction of the court, and provided he can otherwise make up the amount required, is qualified, though he be only a lodger, or merely an occupant by sufferance in the house of another. Again, to constitute a 'housekeeper,' within the meaning of

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