St.Aubin Ul

St.Brelades B.
Noirmont Pt
Elizabeth Com

English Miles

or 'jurats,' as they came to be called; and the whole assembly was presided over by a bailiff, or lieutenantgovernor appointed by the crown. There was also a lord-lieutenant, comes, or governor, but he was often an absentee. In the process of time this latter post became chiefly titular; the office of lieutenant-governor was separated from that of bailiff, though the two were occasionally held by the same person, and a regular system of judicial and executive administration came into action. From the time of John to that of Henry VI., many attempts were made by France to conquer the islands. Guernsey was held by the French for some years during the 14th century, though finally reconquered by the English with help from Jersey. In 1461 Jersey itself was conquered, and was held by a French governor for about six years, being finally liberated early in the reign of Edward IV. by Sir R. Harleston. Henry VII. carried his repression of the aristocracy into the islands, where he curtailed the feudal jurisdictions and did something for the popularisation of the militia. The Reformation took early and deep root in the Channel Islands, aided by a considerable immigration of exiled Huguenots from the mainland; but the Anglican ritual was not introduced without difficulty. For most of the time the islands continued subject to the spiritual sway of the Bishop of Coutances; but in 1568 Elizabeth attached them to the diocese of Winchester. Other effects of Elizabeth's reign are the foundation of the college (grammar-school) of St Peter Port, in Guernsey, the grant of Sark to the Carterets of Jersey, and the improvement of the Castle of St Helier, in Jersey, which, like the Guernsey 'College,' still bears the name of the virgin queen.

During the reign of Charles I. Guernsey sided for the most part with the English parliament, Jersey with the crown. In the former island, however, Castle Cornet, which commands the harbour, held out for Charles, and was not reduced until after Jersey had been conquered. This took place in 1651. Under the Commonwealth the Channel Islands continued to enjoy their old privileges, being specially excluded from Instrument of Government,' and from the operation of the excise, because not governed by our laws, but by municipal institutions of their own (Burton's Diary).

In the reign of Charles II. the Channel Islands were once more threatened by France, and the militia was improved and formed into regiments. The total population of the Channel Islands was then about 25,000; and the chief towns began to increase in importance. The reign of William III. witnessed the famous victory of the British navy at Cape La Hogue, largely due to information conveyed to the admiral by a gentleman of Guernsey. The privilege of neutrality was taken from the inhabitants-to whom it had ceased to be useful-and they entered upon a course of priva teering, which made them, in the words of Burke, one of the naval powers of the world.'

of a partial occupation of the islands by Saxon and Danish sea-rovers. Guernsey is named in the Edda, and arms of Viking character have been dug up there. The islands were probably used as depôts in the conquest of Neustria by the Northmen. Some time elapsed after that event, during which they continued subject to Brittany, but in the early part of the 10th century A.D. the Cotentin was added to the duchy of Normandy, and the islands followed in the annexation. The institutions then introduced were those already established on the mainland of Normandy-derived from the Frankish legal system as it existed when the duchy was first separated from the Frank empire by the treaty of St-Clair-sur-Epte (Stubbs's Const. Hist. i. § 92). The feudal system, however, was only partially introduced. The parishes did not become manors -as happened in England after the Conquest-nor did the Norman seigneurs make a general practice of residing in the islands. They drew rents as absentee landlords from the allodial proprietors who, willingly or otherwise, accepted their protection. But these did not yield military service; and the island militia, when formed, adopted and preserved, till comparatively recent times, a parochial organisation. The 12th century is the beginning of the authentic history of these singular little communities, and of the ecclesiastic organisation already transferred from the see of Dol to that of Coutances. When Philip Augustus declared the duchy of Normandy forfeit on the ground of the alleged contumacy, as a vassal, of John Lackland, he also pronounced the confiscation of the fiefs of those seigneurs who might adhere to John; some of these then settled in Jersey, where they formed the chief notables and members of such local government as might be in existence. John confirmed and strengthened the privileges of this body, and appointed coroners sworn to watch over the judicial interests of the crown. By degrees the seigneurs ceased to attend the sittings of the states, where the rural population was represented by the constables or mayors of the parishes or communes: these, together with the rectors, became associated with the coroners,

In 1781, after the French had espoused the cause of the revolted British colonies in America, a semiofficial landing took place in Jersey, headed by an adventurer named Macquart, styling himself Baron de Rullecourt. His defeat by Major Pierson, who fell in the engagement, has been rendered famous by Copley's picture in the National Gallery. Since then the chief event has been in Jersey the introduction of elected deputies into the legislature (1856). In the reign of William IV. the militia of the Channel Islands was declared 'Royal.' Queen Victoria visited them in 1849.

The present constitution of the islands is a development of the ancient institutions, slowly modified to meet changes in surrounding circum

CHANNEL ISLANDS

The people, especially in Guernsey and Jersey, adhere to their old speech, a dialect of the ancient Langue d'oil, which was once a literary language. Its best-known monument is the Roman de Rou of Wace, a native of Jersey, who wrote in the 12th century. In our own days it has been revived by the late Georges Métivier, who has been called the 'Guernsey Burns.' The late Sir Robert Marett was also the author of many poems written in the Jersey form of the language. The basis of the local law is the Coûtumier de Normandie, which is prima facie evidence of the common law. Besides this, the local states enact statutes of two kinds-their bylaws (called 'ordonnances'), having force for three years without royal assent, and organic statutes, which must be sanctioned by the crown. The French language, in its modern shape, is the official language of the states and of the law-courts; and a French service is held in the parish churches.

The administration, generally speaking, is of the usual two sorts, the executive and the judicial. The principal officer is the general commanding the troops in each bailiwick, of which Jersey is one, and Guernsey, with its dependencies Sark and Alderney, the other. He is called lieutenantgovernor, and is appointed in that capacity for five years. The chief civil officer is the bailiff, who presides in the executive and legislative assemblies, represented when absent by a lieutenant-bailiff. In judicial matters the bailiff is also the chief, the superior courts being formed by a quorum of the jurats. In matters of legislation the states are constituted in Jersey of the twelve jurats, twelve rectors, twelve constables, and fourteen deputies; but in Guernsey almost all power has been retained by the royal court. The other crown officers are the attorney-general, the solicitor-general, and the viscount or prévôt, who have a right of sitting in the states, but not of voting. The Channel Islands, as already mentioned, are attached to the diocese of Winchester, but each bailiwick has its own dean. The livings are in the gift of the crown, but are of small value. The administration is, to a great extent, gratuitous; such offices as are not so being paid chiefly out of the local revenues of the crown. These islands have compulsory military service within their own limits-about one-tenth of the population being in the ranks or the reserve of the militia. Their immunities have been fully and frequently recognised, and much loyalty to England is consequently felt. The industry, thrift, and prosperity of the inhabitants have been testified to by recent observers. Their holdings are small, but the agricultural population consists chiefly of yeomen-proprietors who labour with their own hands. The towns are busy and populous, and the houses, both there and on the farms, are large, substantial, and well kept. The taxation is trifling, the customs duties being very light. Living is very cheap. Communication with the ports of the south of England is regular and frequent.

Geology.-Most of the islands are composed of primary or granitic rocks. Alderney is a mass of syenite, with hornblende, porphyry, and occasional sandstone. The structure of Guernsey is hard syenite to the north, and gneiss to the south. The geology of Jersey is more varied, presenting a mixture of metamorphic rocks, conglomerates, and sandstones, with syenites and quartzites. Shale and blown sand are also prevalent. Sark is composed of very hard syenite, with veins of greenstone and felspar. Granite is quarried from all the islands, especially from Guernsey, Herm, and Mont Mado in Jersey, both for home use and for exportation.

The scenery is exquisitely varied and beautiful;

probably in no other area of similar size could be found such a combination of savage rocks and pleasing landscapes.

The climate is agreeable and suitable to invalids. The prevailing winds are from north to northwest. The mean annual rainfall is 35 inches in Guernsey; but the climate is not over moist, the soil being porous, and evaporation rapid. The mean annual temperature of Jersey is 50°8°; of Guernsey, 50.5°, or about 2° warmer than Greenwich. The range of temperature is very moderate; but the climate of Guernsey is rather more equable than that of Jersey. August is the hottest month; February the coldest. Frost and snow are rare. The autumns are very beautiful; and a second summer, called the Petit Eté de Saint Martin, generally sets in about the 10th of October, and lasts till the middle of December. Flowering plants and shrubs are about a fortnight earlier in the spring than in England. The sunshine averages nearly six hours a day throughout the year.

The produce of the islands is principally agricultural; but horticulture and floriculture are successfully followed-the latter especially in Guernsey. The soil is generally light, deep, and fertile. The system of cultivation is very primitive. The principal manure is seaweed, which is gathered in vast quantities from the shores at certain seasons under strict regulations. Its annual value to Guernsey alone is estimated at £30,000. A great quantity is burned for the manufacture of kelp and iodine.

The land is held in small parcels ranging from five to twenty English acres. The principal crops are potatoes, hay, wheat, turnips, mangel-wurzel, parsnips, and carrots. The Channel Islands are famous for excellent breeds of horned cattle, usually known as 'Alderneys,' though each island has its own speciality (see CATTLE). The other main articles of exportation are granite, fruit, and early potatoes.

There are no good recent books on the Channel Islands. Physical phenomena will be found treated of by Professor Ansted in The Channel Islands (1862). Some useful historical information will be found in Le Quesne's Constitutional History of Jersey (1856), and Tupper's History of Guernsey (1876). See the separate articles on JERSEY and GUERNSEY.

Channel Tunnel. The proposed tunnel under the narrow channel dividing England and France, which countries in very early geological times were united, would be 23 miles long, including land-approaches. It would be made entirely through and within the area of the old gray chalk, or craie de Rouen, as designated by French geologists. This bed of chalk extends from shore to shore. It consists of a mixture of 65 per cent. of chalk and 35 per cent. of clay, and is therefore impervious to water; though the experimental works have shown cracks here and there which exude for a time a fresh or brackish water, apparently imprisoned for ages in these small fissures. While the experimental works have been suspended most of these fissures have run themselves dry. The French Tunnel Company, who possess a concession for making a tunnel to the middle of the Channel, and the English Tunnel Company, associated under limited liability,' have made many thousand soundings and experiments, and consider it proved that the gray chalk' is not only in the same position and of the same thickness and consistency on each side of the Channel, but that no erosion or fault interfering with continuity exists as between the two coasts.

The experimental works, already executed by a headway of 7 feet diameter on the English side, have been extended by the using of a boring machine,' from the foot of Shakespeare's Cliff, near Dover,

CHANSONS DE GESTES

twelve syllables, arranged in laisses, or stanzas of irregular length, throughout each of which the same rhyme or assonance is repeated. In his introduction to the Song of Roland, M. Génin points out that it is the decasyllabic verse of the Chansons and not the Alexandrine (a form introduced in the 13th century) which is the true epic verse in French literature. A large number of these poems celebrate the exploits of the peers of Charlemagne, and form what is termed the Carlovingian cycle, which includes the Song of Roland. But while the author of that poem depiots Charlemagne as on the whole a worthy and venerated sovereign, the aim of the later writers is to exalt the vassal nobles at the expense of the emperor, who is invariably presented in an odious or ridiculous light. 'The great emperor,' says M. Géruzez, pays for the misdeeds of his feeble successors; the monarchy of which he remains the representative has been degraded; consequently he is degraded along with it, to the profit of the feudal hero who is opposed to him.' The principal poems of the Carlovingian cycle (setting aside the Song of Roland) are Ogier le Danois, Renaut de Montauban, Raoul de Cambrai, Huon de Bordeaux, Les Saisnes, Doon de Mayence, Gérard de Viane, and Hugues Capet. Ogier is a typical chanson containing more than 13,000 lines, written by Raimbert of Paris in the first half of the 12th century. It tells how the vassal noble Ogier, after vainly seeking reparation for the death of his son, who has been slain by a son of Charlemagne, is pursued by the emperor into Italy and captured after a heroic resistance; how, saved from death by the intervention of Archbishop Turpin, he lives in concealment until the Saracens invade France, and the emperor is forced to implore his aid; how he yields at last to repeated entreaties, frees the land from the heathen, marries a princess, and lives happily to the end of his days. The style of the poem is clear and vigorous, the characters stand out vividly, the narrative interest is considerable, and the hero rivets the sympathy of the reader. The Voyage du Charlemagne à Constantinople, which belongs to the same cycle, offers a strong contrast to Ogier. It is a mock-heroic piece, full of broad and extravagant pleasantries, and is rather a long fabliau than a true Chanson de Gestes. Among the other chansons which have come to light, the most remarkable are Garin le Loherain (ascribed to Jean de Flagy), which takes us back to the times of Charles Martel and Pepin, and describes the feud between the Counts of Metz and the Counts of Boulogne; Amis et Amiles, and its sequel Jourdains de Blaivies; Berte aus grans Piés, one of the most graceful of all; Gérard de Roussillon; Fierabras; Aliscans, which relates the wars of William of Orange with the Saracens; and Antioche, which gives a singularly animated account of the siege of Antioch by the crusaders, one of whom is supposed to have written the original version of the poem. The last forms one of the series known as Le Chevalier au Cygne, which is concluded with

The Chansons de Gestes are not, strictly speaking, epics, though they are frequently described as such. They are rather the material out of which a genuine epic, such as the Iliad or the Nibelungenlied, might have been wrought had a great poet appeared to extract the gold from the dross and mould-a work of art out of this rich mass of national legend. There has been a natural tendency to overestimate their worth on the part of those by whom they have been exhumed and edited. Their literary merit, however, is incontestable, and their historical interest is very great. They faithfully reflect the beliefs and customs of the ages in which they were written; they abound in

spirited battle-pieces, and contain not a few passages marked by deep and simple pathos. Their plots are somewhat monotonously alike. The strength of their writers does not lie in invention, but in fresh and vivid and sometimes (as in the picture of the sack of the abbey in Raoul de Cambrai) terribly realistic descriptions. Their verse is by no means unmelodious, and their style is rich in picturesque and poetical epithets.

After lying in neglect for centuries, the Chansons de Gestes have for the last fifty years been assiduously studied and brought into notice by a band of French and German scholars. Some fifty of them are now in print, a number of these having been edited by the late M. Paulin Paris, a scholar who did more than any one else to promote the study of this department of literature.

See Léon Gautier's Les Epopées Françaises (2d ed. 1878); the Histoire Poétique de Charlemagne, by G. Paris (1866); C. d'Héricault's Essai sur l'Origine de l'Epopée Française (Frankfort, 1860); Génin's introduction to the Chanson de Roland (1850); the series, Les Anciens Poëtes de la France, which MM. Guessard and Michelant began to issue in 1858; and Fauriel's Epopée Chevaleresque au Moyen Age.

Chant, in Music, is the name applied to the short tunes used in the English Church since the Reformation for the psalms and, less properly, the canticles. The adaptation of the form to the Its distinstructure of the psalms is obvious. guishing point is that each section is composed of a reciting note of indefinite length, according few notes in regular time, called the Mediation to the number of words sung to it, followed by a

or Termination.

The tunes were originally derived, as the name indicates, from the Canto Fermo, or Plain Song of the Roman Church, also called Gregorian Tones. These Gregorian tones Chant, which was the first attempt to systematise were preceded by a still earlier form, the Ambrosian the traditional music of the Christian church, carried out by Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, in the 4th century. Of this, next to nothing is now known, the statements of musical historians being founded on slender authority, and curiously at variance.

If any fragments still remain in the services of the Roman Church, they cannot be distinguished from the later Gregorian music (see There has been a PLAIN SONG, INTONING). revival in the present day of the old Gregorian chants, which are all 'single,' that is, composed of only two sections, and adapted to a single verse, and have the additional feature of an introductory 'intonation' of two notes before the first reciting note; but many consider these of mainly The double chant, adapted antiquarian interest. to a couple of verses, and hence more suitable for antiphonal singing, dates from the time of the Restoration; and in later days there have been added quadruple chants. The repertory has been enriched by almost every English composer of the last three centuries, famous or obscure. The objectionable florid' style has now happily gone out. On the subject of pointing' the psalms-i.e. indicating the division of the verses to accord with the chant, there is great diversity of usage, and no authoritative system. the subject, theoretic and practical, from various points of view, will be found in Helmore's Psalter Noted and Plain Song, the Cathedral Psalter, and Ouseley and Monk's and Oakeley's Psalters. The practice of chanting is gaining ground in the Presbyterian and other churches.

The best treatment of

Chantenay, a growing western suburb of Nantes (q.v.).

Chantibun, or CHANTABON, a town of Siam, on a river, near the Gulf of Siam, of considerable importance as a commercial port. Pop. 30,000.

Chantilly, a town in the French department of Oise, 26 miles NNE. of Paris. One of the most beautiful places in the vicinity of the capital, and the headquarters of French horse-racing, it attracts immense numbers of visitors. Apart from its natural beauty, it is interesting as the place where the Great Condé spent the last twenty years of his life in the society of Molière, Boileau, Racine, La Fontaine, and Bossuet, and where his cook killed himself, on the occasion of a royal visit, because the fish failed to arrive. His magnificent chateau was pulled down at the Revolution of 1793, but was rebuilt by the Duc d'Aumale, who bought back the estate in 1872, and who in 1886 presented it to the French Institute, with its priceless art collections, its celebrated stables for 250 horses, and its 16th-century Petit Château,' one of the finest specimens of Renaissance architecture in France. The grounds, park, and forest, 6050 acres in area, are of great beauty-truly a princely gift, its value nearly £2,000,000. The manufacture of silk pillow-lace, or blonde, so famous in the 18th century, is all but extinct. Pop. (1886) 4139.

Chantrey, SIR FRANCIS LEGATT, an eminent English sculptor, was born at Jordanthorpe, in Derbyshire, on 7th April 1781 (not 1782, as has been generally said). His father, who was a carpenter, and rented a small farm, died when Chantrey was only twelve years of age, leaving the mother in narrow circumstances. The boy was in 1797 apprenticed for seven years to a carver and gilder in Sheffield called Ramsay. It was in these humble circumstances that Chantrey acquired the rudiments of art. He began to model in clay and to draw portraits and landscapes in pencil. His efforts were encouraged by J. R. Smith, the mezzotint engraver: he acquired some local celebrity as a portrait painter, and in 1802 was enabled to cancel his indentures with Ramsay. Soon afterwards he came to London,

and studied for a short time in the schools of the Royal Academy, employing himself also in woodcarving. In 1805 he received his first commission for a marble bust, that of the Rev. J. Wilkinson, for the parish church, Sheffield. This was followed by commissions for colossal busts of admirals for Greenwich Hospital; and having in 1807 married a cousin with some property, his early struggles were over. In 1808 he was successful in the competition for the statue of George III. for Guildhall, and during the rest of his life he was largely employed on works of portraiture. The features of the most celebrated men of his time were transcribed by his chisel, and it was in this class of severely realistic work that he most uniformly excelled; though probably his most widely known statue-group is that of the Sleeping Children' in Lichfield Cathedral, a subject-its design has been attributed, in error, to Flaxman-in which the real and the ideal seem to meet and blend. His busts include those of James Watt, Wordsworth, and the two very celebrated heads of Sir W. Scott, which he executed in 1820 and 1828. Among his statues are Sir Joseph Banks (1827), Sir John Malcolm (1837), Francis Horner, William Pitt, George IV., and the Duke of Wellington; while his head of Satan and his Plenty designs for Sheaf House, Sheffield, and his 'Penelope' at Woburn, are examples of his rare treatment of ideal and imaginative subjects. In 1816 Chantrey was elected an Associate, in 1818 a Member of the Royal Academy; and in 1835 he was knighted by William IV. Allan Cunningham, the poet, was his secretary and superintendent of works from 1814 till the date of Chantrey's death, 25th November 1841. The sculptor acquired by the practice of his art a fortune of about £150,000; and bequeathed to the Royal Academy, with liferent to his widow, who died in 1875, a sum yielding about £3000

CHAPALA

annually, of which the president was to receive £300 and the secretary £50, and the rest was to be devoted to the purchase of works of art executed in Great Britain. Many national acquisitions have already been made by means of this Chantrey Fund.' See John Holland's Memorials of Chantrey (1851).

Chantry (Fr. chanterie, from chanter, 'to sing'), a term applied alike to endowments or benefices to provide for the chanting of masses, and to the chapels in which such masses are celebrated. These endowments were commonly made in the form of testamentary bequests, the object being to insure the erection of a chapel near or over the spot where the testator was buried, and to remunerate the priests for saying masses in it for the repose of his soul, or of the souls of others named in his will. Many such chantry chapels are still to be seen in English parish churches; but they were more common in abbeys and monastic establishments, in which it was deemed a privilege to be buried, and where some such offering to the brotherhood was in a measure the price of sepulture. These chapels, which have generally the tomb of the founder in the middle of them, are separated from the aisles or nave of the church by open screen-work. Sometimes, again, they are separate erections, projecting from the church externally; but in cathedrals and the larger churches they are generally constructed within the church, often between the piers. Many chantries are lavishly enriched with sculpture and tracery of all descriptions, and some of them are adorned with gilding and painting.

Chanzy, ANTOINE EUGÈNE ALFRED, French general, born at Nouart (Ardennes), 18th March 1823, entered the artillery as a private, received a commission in the Zouaves in 1841, and served the revolution of the 4th September the Governalmost uninterruptedly in Africa till 1870. After ment of National Defence appointed him a general of division; in December he was placed at the head invaders inch by inch with a stubborn valour that of the second Army of the Loire, and resisted the won the respect of the Germans and the confidence of his countrymen, and which found a fitting close in the great six days' conflict about Le Mans. He was elected to the National Assembly, and narrowly escaped being shot by the Communists in 1871. In 1873-79 he was governor-general of Algeria. Chosen a life senator in 1875, he was put forward for the presidency in 1879. He was ambassador at St Petersburg in 1879-81, and afterwhere he died suddenly, 4th January 1883. wards commanded the 6th army corps at Châlons, Chuquet, Le Général Chanzy (1884).

See

Chaos signified, in the ancient cosmogonies, that vacant infinite space out of which sprang all things that exist. Some poets make it the single original source of all; others mention along with it Gaa, Tartaros, and Eros. By some also only the rough outlines of heaven and earth were supposed to have proceeded from Chaos, while the organisation and perfecting of all things was the work of Eros. Still later cosmogonists, such as Ovid, represent it as that confused, shapeless mass out of which the universe was formed into a kosmos, or harmonious order. Hesiod makes Chaos the mother of Erebus and Nox. 'In Gen. i. 1–2, after God created heaven and earth, the earth was yet 'waste and void (tōhū va-bōhū), and darkness was upon the face of the deep' (těhōm, the Chaldee tiamat). See ADAM AND EVE.

Chapala, a lake of Mexico, on the high plateau of Jalisco, surrounded by steep, bare mountains. It has an estimated area of 1300 sq. m., contains many islands, and is traversed by the Rio Grande de Santiago.