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upheaved plateaus and opened fractures that now mark the courses of the principal rivers. Of the sections outside the main Cordilleras, the principal are the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, in the north, and the low Baudo range, along the north-west coast, which extends into Panamá. From the Central Cordillera descend the two principal rivers of Colombia, the Magdalena and its tributary the Cauca, which flow north into the Caribbean Sea, besides several affluents of the Amazon in the east, and the Patía, which forces its way to the Pacific, through a gorge between cliffs 10,000 to 12,000 feet high, and forms the only notable break in the long wall of the Western Cordillera from Darien to Patagonia. The Eastern Cordillera, by far the largest chain, consists of a series of extensive tablelands, cool and healthy, where the white race flourishes as vigorously as in Europe. This temperate region is the most thickly populated portion of the republic; and on one of its plateaus, at an elevation of 8694 feet, stands the capital, Bogotá (q.v.). Eastward from this Cordillera stretch vast llaños or plains, through which flow the Meta, the Guaviare, and other tributaries of the Orinoco. Besides these, the chief rivers are the San Juan (navigable 150 miles), on the Pacific coast; the Atrato (q.v.) and Zulia (150 miles), flowing north; the Arauca (600), which, as well as the Meta (700) and Guaviare (850), feeds the Orinoco; and the Caquetá (1350), the Putumayo (1100), and the Napo (750), tributaries of the Amazon. The lakes are unimportant.

Climate and Productions.-In the course of one day's journey, the traveller may experience in this country all the climates of the world; perpetual snows cover the summits of the Cordilleras, while the valleys are smothered in the rich vegetation of the tropics. The mean temperature ranges from 32° to 82°, according to the elevation. The climate of Panamá is notoriously unwholesome, and in some parts of Bolívar and Magdalena, in the north, marsh fevers abound. The rainy season falls from November to April, except among the low-lying forests of the south-east, where the rainfall is distributed throughout the year, and in the Chocó coast district of the north-west, where, shut in from the north-east winds, the heavy atmosphere hangs motionless, and mists and torrents of rain alternate. Colombia naturally yields a variety of productions corresponding to this great diversity of climate and of elevation. The hot region, extending to an elevation of about 3200 feet, produces in abundance rice, cacao, sugar-cane, bananas, yams, tobacco, indigo, cotton, caoutchouc, vegetable ivory, and many medicinal plants; and the forests, with their tagua and other stately palms, their rare balsamic resins and valuable dyewoods, are ablaze with flowers and creepers, and steeped in the perfume of the delicate vanilla orchid. In the temperate zone, from 3200 to 8500 feet above the sea, many of these plants are equally common, but the cocoa-nut palm gives place to the oak, the encenillo, groups of laurels, and arborescent ferns, and here flourish the coffee plant, the odorous Cherimoya (q.v.) and curibano, the fig, and the cinchona-tree. The Wax-palm (q.v.) extends beyond this region, and is found at a height of nearly 11,000 feet, and large crops of potatoes, grain, and leguminous plants are raised in the cold region; but from 10,000 feet rises the bleak páramo, with its scanty vegetation, ending in lichens at the snow-line. The fauna of Colombia is very extensive. Both coasts abound with turtles and pearl-oysters; the rivers swarm with fish and alligators, and on their marshy banks the capybara is found; the forests are the haunt of the tapir, armadillo, cavy, opossum, and deer, and during the day are alive with monkeys

(of which no less than seventeen species are common), squirrels, paroquets, and numerous bright-plumaged birds, whose notes give place at night to the plaintive cry of the sloth. Beasts of prey are the jaguar, puma, ocelot, margay, and bear. The boa and numerous other snakes are common, but venomous serpents cease at an elevation of 6000 feet, the centipede and the chigoe are not met beyond 9850 feet, while the plague of mosquitoes and ants, and of other more dangerous insects, is mainly confined to the lowlands. In the northern departments, and in the immense llaños of the east, great herds of cattle, descended from those imported by the Spaniards, are reared; in the central districts, shorthorns and other English, Dutch, and Norman cattle and horses have been introduced, and are largely raised throughout the temperate zone. Fish life ceases in the lakes at 13,000 feet; and in the solitudes above, the condor dwells alone. In minerals the country is exceedingly rich, although its scanty population, their poverty, and the absence of roads have combined to limit the exploitation of the precious metals. Nevertheless, in 1887, claims were presented to 751 mines in Antioquia; and from this department alone over £400,000 worth of gold is annually exported. The department of Tolima is the richest in silver. It is estimated that gold to the value of £125,000,000, and silver to the value of nearly £7,000,000, have been exported since the 16th century; and over 95 per cent. of this ore has been found west of the Magdalena. Iron, copper, lead, coal, sulphur, zinc, antimony, arsenic, cinnabar, rock-salt, crystal, granite, marble, lime, gypsum, jet, amethysts, rubies, porphyry, and jasper are also found; while much of the world's platinum is obtained from the upper San Juan, and the principal source of the finest emeralds is at Muzo in Boyacá, although there are other mines near Nemocon, in Cundinamarca.

Commerce, Finance, &c.-The only industries common to all the departments of Colombia are agriculture and the rearing of cattle. Coarse cloth fabrics for the inland trade are manufactured to some extent in Santander and Boyacá, and chinaware and cardboard in Antioquia; also soap, matches, and candles are made in Bogotá, and there are two foundries and a shoe factory in Cundinamarca; but straw-hats, known abroad by the name of Panamá, although they are made only in certain parts of Tolima, Antioquia, and Santander, are perhaps the only manufactured article exported from the country. The transit trade across the Isthmus of Panamá, valued at £15,000,000 per annum, is of far more consequence than the direct commerce. The foreign trade proper is mainly with Great Britain and the United States. The imports are mostly food-stuffs, textiles, machinery, and ironwares; the exports, coffee, gold, silver, and other ores, caoutchouc, ivory-nuts, divi-divi, tobacco, cacao, cotton, cinchona, cattle, balsams, timber and dyewoods, hides and wool. The average annual value of imports in the period 1875-84 was $9,662,806, of exports, $13,584,890; in 1886 the value of imports was $6,726,992, and of exports, $13,032,278; but it is difficult to reduce these figures to British currency, for although the dollar has a nominal value of four shillings, the rate of exchange has since 1878 varied between five and a half and nine dollars to the pound sterling. The nation has for some years been undergoing a severe financial crisis. For the fiscal year 1888-89 the expenditure was estimated at $23,852,806, and the revenue at $18,173,700, showing a deficit of $5,679,106; in 1888 the internal debt, floating and consolidated, amounted

COLOMBIA

to $29,605,552, the foreign debt was calculated at $13,435,178, and $10,129,527 of government papermoney was in circulation. There appears, however, some reason to expect that the measures adopted to meet the nation's liabilities may prove effectual, and the present financial condition of the republic is said to be comparatively hopeful. For the rest, the government can only look to rigid economy and the development of its rich mines, which it is endeavouring to encourage to the utmost, for relief from its embarrassments. All enterprise, however, is sadly hampered by the difficulty of communication. The Magdalena and the other great streams are the principal arteries of commerce, and a good deal of steamer traffic is carried on; but, besides that of Panamá, there were in 1888 only six railways open for traffic, with a total length of 215 miles, although several others were expected to be completed shortly. The telegraph system has 2357 miles of lines, and this and the postal service (including a parcel post with Great Britain since 1888) are worked as efficiently as the condition of the country will permit. For the railway, canal, and other information as to the Isthmus, see the article PANAMÁ.

Population. The chief aborigines of the country, the Chibchas or Muyscas, who inhabited the plateau of Bogotá, ranked among the nations of the New World second to the Aztecs and Peruvians alone. They worshipped the sun, had a calendar, and a government closely resembling that of Japan, lived in communes, were industrious farmers, and dressed in garments of cotton. Their rich, beautiful language has been forgotten by their descendants, but is preserved in a grammar published at Madrid by the Dominican missionary, Bernardo de Lugo, in 1619. The rest of the country was occupied by a great number of tribes, with as many dialects as divisions, sinking from the grade of the Chibchas to the naked savages of the plains, who were little above the level of the brutes they hunted. Some of the intermediate races, while understanding Spanish, have preserved their primitive speech; the uncivilised Indians are now mostly confined to the eastern plains, the northern portion of Magdalena, and the district of Darien and the Atrato. The pure whites form about a fifth of the entire population, and the Indian half-breeds more than half; there are now scarcely any pure negroes left in the country, but the mulattoes and zambos, resulting respectively from the union of negroes with whites and Indians, exceed a sixth of the whole. Slavery was finally abolished in 1852, and in 1870 a system of compulsory education was adopted which has on the whole proved successful. Parochial, secondary, normal, and technical schools are now within general reach, and all the departments boast universities of more or less efficiency, except Magdalena, Tolima, and Panamá. Journalism is largely represented in most of the large towns; and at the capital a considerable number of books are published every year. The state church is the Roman Catholic, which in the management of its own affairs is independent of the civil authority; religious orders were suppressed in 1863, and toleration in matters of religion is guaranteed; but, by the terms of a concordat entered into with the holy see in 1888, in the universities and all educational establishments public instruction is directed in conformity with the dogmas of the Roman Catholic Church, religion is one of the obligatory subjects of study, and diocesans are empowered to suspend teachers or professors who neglect or disobey this order.

History. The northern coasts of Colombia were visited by Ojeda and Amerigo Vespucci in 1499, and afterwards by Bastidas; in 1502 Columbus

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explored part of the country, and endeavoured to found on the Isthmus of Panamá the first Spanish colony on the American mainland. In 1513 Balboa (q.v.) discovered the Pacific, and Pizarro and Almagro sailed along the western coast of Colombia on their way to Peru in 1526. Ten years later Jimenez de Quesada broke the power of the Muyscan empire, and the Nuevo Reino de Granada was formed. As the country was opened up, the Indians sank, in spite of legislation designed for their protection, to the condition of serfs, and the policy of the crown, aided by the Inquisition, which was introduced in 1571, put an end to the democratic institutions of the early settlers. The region was administered by the Council of the Indies; nearly all posts were sold to Spanish speculators, who recouped themselves at the expense of the colonists; and even the commerce of the new possessions was granted as a monopoly to the merchants of Seville. The country formed a presidency (except during the years 171824) from 1564 to 1739, a period memorable for the disastrous descents of Drake, Morgan, Dampier, and others on the coast towns; it was then raised to a viceroyalty, which lasted until the war of independence.

On the 20th July 1810 the colony shook off the yoke of the mother-country, and entered upon the long struggle which ended in the election of Bolivar (q.v.) to the presidency of the Republic of Colombia, a term which, like the viceroyalty, embraced all that now belongs to Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador. Independently of the singular difficulties of communication, and of the resulting absence of anything like natural unity, this unwieldy state contained from the beginning the germs of its own dissolution in the national character of its inhabitants. So long as union was necessary to meet external dangers, it maintained an imposing attitude in the eyes of the world; but gradually sectional interests and political jealousies did their work, and in 1831 the ill-assorted elements of the confederation were separated for ever. What is now Colombia was then formed under the title of the Republic of New Granada; but in 1861 a fresh civil war led to the establishment of the United States of Colombia. In 1863 a constitution was adopted, based on that of the United States of America, with a president elected for two years; but this proved altogether unsuited to the Colombians, and, after twenty years' trial, brought about the revolution of 1884-85. In 1886 a fresh constitution was adopted for the new Republic of Colombia, placing the central authority in the strengthened hands of the federal government, and reducing the nine former self-governing states of Antioquia, Bolívar, Boyacá, Cauca, Cundinamarca, Magdalena, Panamá, Santander, and Tolima to subordinate departments, which still, however, retain the management of their own finances. The executive authority is vested in a president, whose term is extended to six years, assisted by a vice-president, seven ministers, and a council of state; and the legislative power rests with a senate and House of Representatives. Capital punishment has been again established, and the members of the supreme court of justice are made immovable. The strength of the army is fixed at 6500 in time of peace, but in case of war the executive can raise this as circumstances may require.

Marthe (Paris, 1861); Colonel F. Hall, Colombia (Phila See E. Reclus, Voyage à la Sierra-Nevada de Sainte1871); Esguerra, Diccionario Geográfico de Colombia (Bogotá, 1879); Pereira, Les Etats-Unis de Colombie (Paris, 1883); Perez, Geografia General (Bogotá, 1883); Etienne, Nouvelle Grenade (Geneva, 1887); Dr W. Sievers, Reise in der Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (Leip. 1887); and the same author's Cordillere von

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Mérida (Vienna, 1888) contains some notes on eastern Santander. See also the Descripcion published by the Colombian government in 1887, with the supplement on the trade with Spain, published at Barcelona in 1888; F. Bianconi's Notice Descriptive et Carte Commerciale (Paris, 1888); and papers by F. A. A. Simons (1879, '81, '85) and R. B. White (1883) in the Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society.

Colombo, the capital of Ceylon, is situated on the western side of the island. Since the construction of the great breakwater begun in 1875 (see BREAKWATER), the harbour has been greatly improved, and commerce has largely increased; Colombo having superseded Galle as a Coaling Station (q.v.) for large steamers. It contains the government offices, is the seat of an Anglican bishop, and is an important centre of missionary enterprise. Among the chief buildings are the government house, court-house, town-hall, asylum, St Thomas's College, and Wesley College. The fortifications of Colombo were constructed by the Dutch. Colpetty, a beautiful suburb, shaded by groves of the cocoa-nut palm, is a favourite retreat. The humble, mud-constructed dwellings of the Dutch, Portuguese, Eurasians, Singhalese, Tamils, Moors, and Malays are outside the city walls. The pettah or Black Town, the only ancient quarter, extends to the river Kalany-ganga. Pop. (1871) 100,238; (1891) 126,926. Colombo is connected with Kandy by railway. The early name of Colombo, Kalan-totta, the Kalany Ferry,' the Moors corrupted into Kalambu, and by this designation it was described by Ibn Batuta about 1340 A.D. as the finest city of Serendib. The Portuguese, who fortified it 1517 A.D., wrote the name Colombo, in honour of Christopher Columbus. The Dutch succeeded to the Portuguese, and Colombo was taken by the British, 16th February 1796. See CEYLON.

Colon. See ASPINWALL.

Colon, that portion of the large intestine which extends from the Cæcum (q.v.) to the rectum, which is the terminal portion of the intestinal

canal. See INTESTINES.

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Colonel (from the Italian colonello, the 'leader of a column') is the grade of officer next below that of general. The chief officer of an English regiment at one time bore the title of captain, but since 1588 that of colonel has been substituted. In the British army, except in the Artillery and Engineers, the office of regimental colonel, as distinct from a colonel on the staff, is a sinecure, the commander of the infantry battalion or cavalry regiment being the lieutenant-colonel. Regimental colonels are general officers, who have had a regiment given to them,' as it is called, as a reward for long service, and virtually as a retirement. The pay, except in the Guards (where it is higher), is £1000 a year. In 1888 it was decided to discontinue these appointments as soon as those who have a vested right to succeed to them have been satisfied, and it has been decided that no officer shall obtain the rank of colonel except by Brevet (q.v.) for distinguished conduct, or on being selected for certain appointments carrying with them that rank; such as aide-de-camp to the sovereign, assistant-adjutant general, and commander of a regimental district. See COMMISSIONS, ARMY. In the German, Austrian, and Russian armies, where the regiments are very large, the colonelcies are mostly honorary posts, held by royal and other distinguished personages. Colonia, a department of Uruguay, on the Plata, below the Uruguay River. The uplands are barren, but in the fertile valleys and plains are numerous European colonies, engaged in agriculture and stock-raising. Area, 2185 sq. m.; pop. (1885) 33,209. The capital, Colonia del Sacramento, on

COLONIAL ANIMALS

the Plata, about 100 miles above Monte Video, has a good harbour, a dock for vessels of 1000 tons, ruined fortifications, and some 1500 inhabitants.

Colonial Animals, organisms which cannot be fairly regarded as unities, but consist of numerous more or less similar individuals united in a common life. Among the usually single-celled simplest animals or Protozoa, loose colonies not unfrequently occur, and are of not a little importance as suggestions of the bridge between the single-celled and many-celled animals. Such colonies arise when the original cell, instead of reproducing discontinuously, retains its daughter-cells in union with itself or with one another, just like the egg-cell of a higher animal. By sacrifice of individuality at the epoch of reproduction, a higher unity is formed. the same way a simple cup-shaped sponge, by continuous budding, forms a colony of similar forms, which may possess more or less distinct individuality. The common fresh-water Hydra, to mount a step higher, buds off daughter Hydra, which remain for a while connected with the parent organism, and make it temporarily colonial. This becomes constant in the myriad colonies of hydra-like forms which are known as Zoophytes, or Hydroids (q.v.). The same formation of colonies is well illustrated in the higher polyps of the seaanemone type, where in dead-men's fingers and in most corals, compound or colonial organisms are beautifully illustrated. Some jellyfish-like or medusoid types also become compound, and lead on to the order Siphonophora, where, as in the Portuguese man-of-war (Physalia) or in Velella, the occurrence of compound forms is a constant character. But in this last case a further step has been made, for the individuals not only share a common nutritive life, but are bound together in a more intimate way into a true unity of a higher order. Among simple worm-like forms, chains of and these point to the probable origin of the higher individuals are occasionally formed, as in Catenula, similar joints.' Even among the higher worms, or segmented worms which consist of a series of temporary compound forms occasionally occur, as in the fresh-water Nais or the marine Syllis. The Polyzoa afford good illustration of colonial life as an almost constant character of a class. Finally, passing beyond the limit of invertebrate animals, we find the last examples of true colonial organisms in the Ascidians (q.v.) or Tunicata. sional development of double or multiple forms from a single ovum is among higher animals the only suggestion of compound organisms.

From the above illustrations a few general conclusions may be drawn. The process of asexual budding, which leads to the formation of compound organisms, is commonest in relatively passive vegetative animals, like sponges, hydroids, corals, polyzoa, and ascidians, and is an expression of their general physiological constitution. When the colonial organism is free-living, as in Siphonophora and some Tunicata, the individual members are more closely knit together, and the colony is more perfectly integrated. As above suggested, some colonial forms are of importance as illustrating in loose union an order of individuality, which in higher types becomes more firmly unified. first find loose aggregates;' at a higher level these become 'integrated.' The loose colonies of some medusoid types are thus succeeded by more perfectly integrated forms in the Siphonophora. Finally, colonial organisms are of the highest physiological interest in illustrating division of labour. In a compound organism the internal and external conditions of life are not uniform for all the members; certain persons,' as the individuals are technically called, exhibit the predominance of one function, and others of another;

COLONIAL CORPS

the differences in function thus started bring about more or less marked difference of structure as its consequence; and thus division of labour and 'polymorphism' or difference in form are established. See Perrier, Les Colonies Animales (1882). Colonial Corps were regiments of the regular British army, paid out of imperial revenues, and located in the various colonies where they were formed. The following corps, and numbers were provided for in the Army Estimates for 1860-61 :

Three West India Regiments (after-
wards raised to five)..
Newfoundland Veterans
Ceylon Rifles..

3420 Negro. 229 British. 1585 Native.

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1106 British.

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351 Negro. 37 British. 64 Negro. 88 Lascars.

All the officers were British, except those of the Malta Fencibles. The Cape corps were mounted infantry. Though maintained out of imperial revenue, these corps were not available for the general defence of the empire, and accordingly have been gradually disbanded, their places in the colonies being supplied by levies of local militia. There still exist, besides African commissariat, ordnance store, and medical staff corps, one West India Regiment of two battalions, the Malta Fencibles, one company of Gun Lascars in Ceylon, and another at Hong-kong.

Colonial Office. See SECRETARY OF STATE. Colonial System, also called COMMERCIAL SYSTEM, a name for the theory long acted on by European nations, that their settlements abroad were to be treated as proprietary domains, exploited for the benefit of the mother-country, which did everything it could to import their produce as cheaply as possible, and encourage them to a large consumption of home manufactures. The system was carried to its furthest extent by Spain. See COLONY, FREE TRADE, MONOPOLY, NAVIGATION LAWS, SPAIN, UNITED STATES.

Colonisation Society. See LIBERIA. Colonna, CAPE (ancient Sunium Promontorium), a headland of Greece, forming the southmost point of Attica, and crowned by the ruins of a temple of Minerva, thirteen of whose white marble columns, from which the cape derives its modern name, are still standing.

Colonna, a celebrated Roman family, which took its name from a village among the Alban Hills, 12 miles ESE. of Rome, and which, from its numerous castles, vast estates, and crowds of clients, enjoyed a powerful influence from the 11th to the 16th century. From it have sprung a pope (Martin V., q.v.), several cardinals, generals, statesmen, and noted scholars, and VITTORIA COLONNA, the most celebrated poetess of Italy. She was the daughter of Fabrizio Colonna, Constable of Naples, at whose estate of Marino she was born in 1490. When four years old, she was betrothed to a boy of the same age, Ferrante d'Avalos, son of the Marchese de Pescara ; at seventeen they were married. After her husband's death in the battle of Pavia (1525), Vittoria Colonna found her chief consolation in solitude and the cultivation of her poetical genius. During seven years of her widowhood she resided alternately at Naples and Ischia, and then removed to the convent of Orvieto, afterwards to that of Viterbo. In her later years she left the convent, and resided in Rome, where she died in February 1547. She was the loved friend of Michael Angelo, admired by Ariosto

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(see canto xxxvii. of the Orlando), and the intimate associate of the reforming party at the papal court. Her poems belong chiefly to the period following her husband's death, and are remarkable for truth of sentiment and enlightened piety. They were first published at Parma in 1538; the most perfect edition is that of Ercole Visconti (Rom. 1840). See Mrs H. Roscoe's Vittoria Colonna, her Life and Poems (Lond. 1868), and a study by the Hon. Alethea Lawley (1888).

The family is still distinguished in Italy, three of its four lines being princely. The Colonna palace, situated at the base of the Quirinal (Rome), is celebrated for its splendid gallery and treasures of art.

Colonna, GIOVANNI PAOLO, composer, born about 1640, either at Brescia or Bologna, became principal of the musical academy at Bologna. Of some 44 works, nearly all were for the church; his one opera, Amilcare, was first performed in 1693. He died 28th November 1695.

Colonsay and Oronsay, two of the Argyllshire Hebrides, 16 miles NNW. of Port Askaig in Islay, separated from each other by a sound, 100 yards wide, and dry at low-water. Colonsay, which rises to a height of 493 feet, is 16 sq. m. in area; Oronsay, only 3. On the latter are a sculptured cross and a 14th-century Austin priory, with some curious effigies; whilst in the former are standing stones, a bone cave, Colonsay House (1722), and an obelisk to the memory of the lawyer, Duncan M'Neill, Lord Colonsay (1794-1874). Pop. (1851) 933; (1881) 397, of whom 10 were in Oronsay.

Colony (Lat. colonia), a name somewhat vaguely applied to the foreign dependencies of a state. In accordance with its etymology (colonus, 'cultivator'), a Roman colonia ought to have been but as a matter of fact it an agricultural community; was a military settlement, urban rather than rural, planted in subject territory. It was essential that the colonists should remain citizens, who thus both The name survives to this day in Cologne and extended and knit together the power of Rome.

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Lincoln.

The Greek colony (apoikia) consisted of a band of emigrants, who were impelled by political dissension or some similar cause to seek a new home beyond the sea, and who were connected with their mother-city (metropolis) by no tie stronger than that of sentiment. According to the legend embalmed by Virgil in his Eneid, Rome itself was a colony, in the Greek sense, of Troy. No Greek colonists penetrated far inland; but the shores of Asia Minor, Sicily, Southern Italy, and even the Crimea, were at an early date fringed with commercial settlements, many of which surpassed in wealth the cities of Greece proper. The Phonicians, who preceded the Greeks as the traders of the Old World, were not a colonising race. Carthage, indeed, was an offshoot from Tyre; but the wide empire of Carthage was based partly upon conquest, and partly upon a system of trading factories.

Colonisation is an incident of a comparatively settled state of society. The vast land migrations which have so profoundly affected the populations of Europe and Asia belong to a different category. Thus it happens that, after the break-up of the Roman empire, the very idea of a colony is not heard again until the great outburst of maritime enterprise in the 16th century. Spain and Portugal led the way, followed by Holland, England, and France. Love of adventure, thirst for gold, the missionary spirit-all combined to attract the energies of Europe, set free by the Renaissance, to the New World and to the farther East. The long and bitter struggle for territorial aggrandisement beyond the seas went on with various vicissitudes until, at the close of the 18th

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