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chief-justice Sir John Cavendish, who in 1381 was beheaded at Bury St Edmunds by Jack Straw's followers; and from Sir William Cavendish of Cavendish, Suffolk (circa 1505-57), a brother of Wolsey's biographer. His third wife, the celebrated Bess of Hardwick,' afterwards Countess of Shrewsbury, brought Chatsworth (q.v.) into the family; and William, their second son, was in 1618 made Earl of Devonshire. His great-grandson, William (1640-1707), was, under the last two Stuarts, a steadfast member of the Whig opposition, Russell's friend to the death, and an active promoter of the Habeas Corpus Act. He succeeded as fourth earl in 1684, and, for his services at the Revolution, was in 1694 raised to be Duke of Devonshire and Marquis of Hartington. His great-grandson, William (1720-64) succeeded as fourth duke in 1755, and was prime-minister from November 1756 to the following May. William, fifth duke (1748-1811), was a bit of a poet; but is less remembered than his beautiful duchess, whom Gainsborough and Reynolds painted. William, sixth duke (1790-1858), was chiefly distinguished by his sumptuous embassy to St Petersburg (1826); and William, seventh duke (born 1808), had inherited the earldom of Burlington in 1834, twenty-four years before he succeeded his cousin in the Devonshire title.

His eldest son, the Right Hon. SPENCER COMPTON CAVENDISH, Marquis of Hartington, was born 23d July 1833, and was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, graduating B.A. in 1854. He entered parliament in 1857, being first returned for North Lancashire, then in 1869 for the Radnor boroughs, in 1880 for North-east Lancashire, and in 1885 for the Rossendale division of that county. The representative of a great Whig house, he was chosen as early as 1859 to move the vote of want of confidence that overthrew the Derby government, and between 1863 and 1874 held office as a Lord of the Admiralty, Under-secretary for War, War Secretary, Postmaster-general, and, from 1871, Chiefsecretary for Ireland. Neither a born statesman nor great orator, he had yet shown an 'infinite capacity for taking pains,' when, in February 1875, on Mr Gladstone's temporary abdication, he was chosen leader of the Liberal opposition. He led it admirably, and in the spring of 1880, on the downfall of the Beaconsfield administration, was invited by the Queen to form a ministry. He rejected the offer, and served under Mr Gladstone, first as Secretary of State for India, and then as War Secretary from 1883 to 1885. But he wholly dissented from Mr Gladstone's scheme of Irish Home Rule; and since 1886, as head of the Liberal Unionists, he has firmly supported Lord Salisbury's Conservative government.

His younger brother, Lord FREDERICK CAVENDISH, was born 30th November 1836, and was also educated at Trinity, taking his B.A. in 1858. He sat in parliament as Liberal member for the northern division of the West Riding of Yorkshire from 1865 till the spring of 1882, when he succeeded Mr Forster as Chief-secretary for Ireland. Between seven and eight o'clock, on the evening of 6th May, having only that morning reached Dublin, he and Mr Burke, an unpopular subordinate, were stabbed to death in the Phoenix Park. Eight months later, twenty Irish Invincibles' were tried for the murder, and, Carey and two others having turned Queen's evidence, five of the rest were hanged, three sentenced to penal servitude for life, and the remaining nine to various terms of imprisonment. Carey himself disappeared; but in July news came from the Cape that he had been shot dead by an Irishman named O'Donnell on board an emigrant ship. O'Donnell was brought back to London, and hanged.

Cavendish, GEORGE, the biographer of Wolsey, was born about 1500, and became Wolsey's gentleman-usher at least as early as 1527. He remained in close attendance upon his great master till the end (November 28, 1530), after which he retired to his house at Glemsford, in Suffolk, where he lived quietly with his wife, a niece of Sir Thomas More, till the close of his own life in 1561 or 1562. His affection for the great cardinal was most devotedhe had attached himself to his household, in Wolsey's own words, abandoning his own country, wife, and children, his own house and family, his rest and quietness, only to serve me.' He never laid aside his loyalty to his memory, but in the quiet meditation of after-years brooded over his fall, and from it learned for himself the blessedness of being little.' Thirty years after he wrote his Life of Cardinal Wolsey, one of the most interesting short biographies in the English language. Its pensive wisdom and simple sincerity reflect a pleasing picture of the gentle and refined nature of its author, and enable us to see intimately with our own eyes, but with singular clearness, the outlines of one of the grandest figures in our history. The book, written by a devout Catholic, full of regrets for the past, could not well be printed in Elizabeth's reign, but circulated pretty freely in manuscript copies, as many as twelve of which are still extant. It is almost certain that Shakespeare had read it before writing or collaborating in Henry VIII., as all the redeeming features in the picture of the great cardinal, and the lesson of his fall as a solemn homily upon human ambition, are directly due to the tender and loyal touch of Cavendish. The book was first printed imperfect, for party purposes, in 1641. The best edition is that of S. W. Singer (2 vols. 1815), the text of which was reprinted with a good introduction in Professor Henry Morley's Universal Library' (1886).

Cavendish, HENRY, natural philosopher, eldest son of Lord Charles Cavendish, and a grandson of the second Duke of Devonshire, was born at Nice, October 10, 1731. From a school at Hackney he passed in 1749 to Peterhouse, Cambridge, but quitted it three years later without a degree; thereafter he devoted the whole of his long life to scientific investigations, a large fortune bequeathed him by an uncle enabling him to follow uninterruptedly his favourite pursuits. A silent, solitary man, he hated so to meet strangers, that he had his library-a magnificent onein London, four miles from his residence on Clapham Common, so that he might not encounter persons coming to consult it; whilst his female domestics had orders to keep out of his sight, on pain of dismissal. His dinner he ordered daily by a note placed on the hall-table. He died, unmarried, at Clapham, 10th March 1810, leaving more than a million sterling to his relatives. As a philosopher, Cavendish is entitled to the highest rank. To him it may almost be said we owe the foundation of pneumatic chemistry, for prior to his time it had hardly an existence. In 1760 he discovered the extreme levity of inflammable air, now known as hydrogen gas-a discovery which led to balloon experiments and projects for aërial navigation ; and later, he ascertained that water resulted from the union of two gases a discovery which has erroneously been claimed for Watt (q.v.; see also WATER). The famous Cavendish Experiment was an ingenious device for estimating the density of the Earth (q.v.). The accuracy and completeness of Cavendish's processes are remarkable. So high an authority as Sir Humphry Davy declared that they 'were all of a finished nature, and though many of them were performed in the very infancy of chemical science, yet their accuracy and their beauty have remained unimpaired.' Cavendish also wrote

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independence of Italy. It was through his advice and influence that Sardinia took part in the war, and as a result of this he managed to bring the Italian question before the Congress of Paris in 1856. In 1858 Cavour had with the Emperor Napoleon a secret meeting, at which the programme for driving Austria out of Italy was drawn up, and during the early part of 1859 there followed a diplomatic contest with Austria, which Cavour conducted with masterly tact and astuteness. The peace of Villafranca, coming after the successful war of 1859, and leaving Austria in possession of Venetia, was a bitter disappointment to Cavour. He resigned his office; yet he had no reason for despair, as the power of Austria in the Italian peninsula was now really broken. On returning to office in 1860 he resumed his great undertaking, but by new methods. Popular feeling in central Italy declared itself in favour of union with the north, and thus Parma, Modena, and Tuscany came under the sway of Victor Emmanuel. the part of Cavour to guide opinion towards this end, gaining time for it while he negotiated with the great powers; but he had to purchase the acquiescence of France by the surrender of Nice and Savoy. He secretly encouraged the expedition of Garibaldi, which in 1860 achieved the deliverance of Sicily and southern Italy. When a Sardinian army met the volunteers of Garibaldi, the unity of Italy marched southwards and on the plains of Campania was already an accomplished fact. In 1861 an Italian parliament was summoned, and Victor Emmanuel was declared king of Italy. For the completion of Italian unity only Rome and Venetia were wanting; with a little patience they too could be won.

It was

Thus had Cavour achieved the task of his life. But it had not been accomplished without a fearful strain on his health. He had to manage the Sardinian parliament, to meet the artifices, protests, and reproaches of many of the great powers, to prevent revolutionary parties from upsetting the practical mission on which he was engaged, and to direct a great popular and national movement towards a reasonable and attainable goal by methods involving the minimum of delay and violence. For the real power of Sardinia was comparatively limited, and a false step might have been serious. The constant strain was too much for him, and he died June 6, 1861, only a few months after the unity of Italy had been proclaimed. The last words he was heard to utter were those so familiar as expressing an important feature of his policy: 'Brothers, brothers, the free church in the free state.' Cavour is admitted to be the beau ideal of a practical and constructive statesman, who, aiming at just and reasonable ends, seeks to achieve them by effectual and legitimate methods. He made a reformed Piedmont the basis for attaining the unity and regeneration of Italy. The ambition of Napoleon, the military gallantry of the king, the enthusiasm of Garibaldi, were all made to cooperate towards his plan for satisfying the national aspirations of Italy under a lasting constitutional rule. Through his early death much of the work necessary for a sound and healthy national life was left unfinished, yet the subsequent history of Italy proves that Cavour had built on a solid foundation. He deserves a place among the greatest statesmen

of modern times.

The title is taken from the small Piedmontese town of Cavour, 28 miles SW. of Turin. See De la Rive, Le Comte de Cavour, Récits et Souvenirs (Paris, 1863; Eng. trans. of same date); Bianchi, La Politique de Cavour (Turin, 1885); his Lettere, edited by Chiala (6 vols. 1883-87); also the biographies of him by Massari (Turin, 1873) and Mazade (Paris, 1877; Eng. trans. of same date).

CAXIAS

Cavy (Cavia), a genus of Rodents, best known by the domesticated species (Cavia cobaya), the common Guinea-pig (q.v.).

Cawdor, a village in Nairnshire, 5 miles SW. of Nairn. Cawdor Castle, near by, the seat of the Earl of Cawdor, was founded in 1454, but is one of the three places which tradition has assigned as the scene of King Duncan's murder by Macbeth in 1040. A series of papers from the charter-room at Cawdor was edited by Cosmo Innes under the title of The Book of the Thanes of Cawdor (1859). See CAMPBELL.

of the mineral called Heavy Spar or Sulphate of Cawk, a popular name for a massive variety Baryta. See BARYTA.

Cawnpore' (Kanhpur), a city of the Northwestern Provinces, on the right bank of the Ganges, 42 miles SW. of Lucknow, 266 SE. of Delhi, and 628 NW. of Calcutta. The river in front, varying, according to the season, from 500 yards in width to more than a mile, presents a large and motley assemblage of steam-vessels and native craft; the principal landing-place is the beautiful Sarsiya ghát. Cawnpore, at least as a place of note, is of recent origin, being indebted for its growth, besides its commercial facilities, partly to military and political considerations. In 1777, being then an it became, in name as well as in fact, British appendage of Oudh, it was assigned by the nawab as the station of a subsidiary force; and in 1801 property. Its cantonments, having accommodation for 7000 troops, contain a population of about 38,000. Pop. of the city (1891) 182,310, giving a total of about 220,000, of whom 125,000 were Hindus, and 5000 Christians. At the outbreak of the mutiny in May 1857, Cawnpore contained about 1000 Europeans, 560 of whom were women and children. The hasty, ill-chosen entrenchments into which they had thrown themselves, were speedily invested by overwhelming numbers of the mutineers, led on by the infamous Nana Sahib. For three weeks the few defenders held gallantly out; but at last they surrendered on promise of a safe-conduct to Allahabad. The sepoys accompanied them to the banks of the Ganges, and scarcely were they embarked on the boats, when a murderous fire was opened upon them, and only four men escaped. The women and children, 125 in number, were reserved for a crueller fate, and were carried back to Cawnpore. Hearing that Havelock was within two days' march of the place, Nana Sahib advanced to meet him. He was driven back, and, smarting under defeat, returned to Cawnpore, and gave orders for the instant massacre of his helpless prisoners, who, dead and dying, were cast into a well. Havelock and his small army arrived on 16th July, only to find to their unutterable horror that they came too late to rescue the women and children. A memorial church, a Romanesque redbrick building, now marks the site of General Wheeler's entrenchment; whilst the scene of the massacre is occupied by the memorial gardens. Over the well itself a mound has been raised, its summit crowned by an octagonal Gothic inclosure, with Marochetti's white marble angel in the centre. But Sir George Trevelyan's Cawnpore (1865) is the best memorial of the tragedy.-The district of Cawnpore has an area of 2370 sq. m., and a popula tion of about 200,000. It is an alluvial plain of great fertility. The vine is cultivated, and indigo grows wild. Besides its two mighty rivers, the Ganges and Jumna, and their navigable tributaries, the Ganges Canal traverses the country for 60 miles, and there is ample communication by rail.

Caxias, (1) a town of Brazil, in the province of Maranhão, on the navigable Itapicuru, 190 miles from its mouth, with an active trade in cotton.

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Pop. 10,000.-(2) An Italian agricultural colony in the Brazilian province of Rio Grande do Sul, founded in 1875. Pop. (1884) 13,680.

Caxton, WILLIAM, the first English printer,

was born in the Weald of Kent about 1422.

He

was apprenticed in 1438 to Robert Large, a wealthy London mercer, who was Lord Mayor in 1439-40. On his master's death in 1441, he went to Bruges; he prospered in business, and became in 1462 governor of a chartered association of English merchants in the Low Countries. In 1471 he abandoned commerce and attached himself to the household of Margaret, Duchess of Burgundy, the sister of Edward ÏV.; and apparently towards the end of 1476 he set up his wooden printing-press at the sign of the Red Pale in the Almonry at Westminster. The art of printing he had acquired during his sojourn in Bruges, doubtless from Colard Mansion, a well-known printer of that city; and in 1474 he put through the press at Bruges the first book printed in the English tongue, the Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye, a translation of Raoul Lefevre's work. The Game and Playe of the Chesse was another of Caxton's earliest publications; but the Dictes and Sayings of the Philosophers, published in 1477, is the first book which can with certainty be maintained to have been printed in England. All the eight founts of type from which Caxton printed may be called Black Letter. Of the ninety-nine known distinct productions of his press, no less than thirty-eight survive in unique copies or in fragments only. His books have no title-pages, although many have prologues and colophons. Some have no points at all; others the full-stop and colon alone. The semicolon never occurs; the comma is usually marked by short (1) or by long (1) lines. The pages are not numbered and have no catchwords. (For Caxton's imprint, see article Book.) Caxton enjoyed the patronage and friendship of some of the chief men of his time. He was diligent in the exercise of his

craft or in translation till within a few hours of his death, which seems to have happened about the close of the year 1491. Gibbon denounces Caxton's choice of books, and complains that 'the world is not indebted to England for one first edition of a classic author; but it should be remembered that Caxton had to make his printing business that he could therefore supply only books for which

pay,

and

there was a demand. Nor can it be said that a

printer had no regard for pure literature who produced editions of Chaucer, Lydgate, Gower, Sir Thomas Malory's King Arthur, and translations of Cicero's De Senectute and De Amicitia. Caxton's industry was marvellous. He was an accomplished linguist, and the translations which he executed himself fill more than 4500 printed pages, while the total produce of his press, exclusive of the books printed at Bruges, reaches to above 18,000, nearly all of folio size. At the Osterley Park sale in 1885, no less than ten Caxtons were sold; one of them, the Chesse, bringing £1950. In 1877 the printer and his work were fittingly commemorated by a typographical exhibition in London. See The Old Printer and the New Press, by Charles Knight (1854); Life and Typography of William Caxton (1861-63), by W. Blades; and the Biography and Typography of Caxton (1877; 2d. ed. 1882), by the same author.

Cayenne, a fortified seaport, capital of French Guiana, on an island at the mouth of a river of the same name. A new town is connected with the older portion by the Place d'Armes, bordered with orange-trees. The harbour is the best on the coast, but insecure and shallow. Cayenne, though it is the entrepôt of all the trade of the colony, is chiefly known as a great French penal settlement (since 1852). The climate is extremely unwholesome for

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Europeans, large numbers of the convicts having been carried off by various malignant fevers. The French took possession of the island in 1604, and again, after it had been held by the English and Dutch, in 1677. The name of the capital is sometimes used for the whole of French Guiana (q.v.). Pop. about 10,000.

Cayenne Cherry. See EUGENIA.

Cayenne Pepper consists of the powder of the dried pods, and more especially of the dried seeds of species of Capsicum (q.v.).

Cayes, or AUX CAYES, a seaport of Hayti, on the south-west coast, 95 miles WSW. of Port-auPrince. Pop. 8000.

Cayley, ARTHUR, mathematician, was born at Richmond, Surrey, in 1821. He was educated at King's College, London, and Trinity College, Cambridge, and graduated as senior wrangler and first Smith's prizeman in 1842. He was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1849, and established a practice as a conveyancer. In 1863 he was elected first Sadlerian Professor of pure Mathematics at Cambridge, and in 1875 to a fellowship of Trinity College. He has received honorary degrees from Oxford, Dublin, and Leyden. He was president of the Royal Astronomical Society (1872-73), and of the British Association at its Southport meeting in 1883, where his address on the ultimate possibilities of mathematics attracted much attention. In 1882 he gave a course of mathematical lectures at the Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, and in the same year received the Copley medal of the Royal Society. His chief book is an Elementary Treatise on Elliptic Functions (1876); a ten volume edition of his Mathematical Papers was begun in 1889.

Caylus, ANNE CLAUDE PHILIPPE DE TUBIERES, COMTE DE, archæologist, was born in Paris After serving in the Spanish War of Sucin 1692. cession, he travelled in Greece and the East, returning to Paris in 1717 to devote himself to the study of antiquities, and the promotion of the fine arts. If his industry sometimes outran his intelligence, it is still true that he did vast service to archaology. He died at Paris in 1765. His chief work is his Recueil d'Antiquités égyptiennes, étrusques, grecques, romaines, et gauloises (7 vols. 1752-67). His copperplate engravings have had a longer life than his stories of Eastern life.

Cay'man, a local name loosely applied to various species of alligator-e.g. to Alligator mississippiensis, the single species of the United States, or more frequently to other species found in tropical or subtropical America. The name has also been used, to all appearance unnecessarily, as the scientific title of a genus, and as such has been most frequently applied to A. palpebrosus and A. trigonatus. It seems more reasonable to regard all the alligators as within the limits of a single genus. See ALLIGATOR.

Caymans, three fertile coral islands of the Caribbean Sea, 165 miles NW. of Jamaica, of which they form a dependency. Discovered by Columbus, they were by him called Tortugas, from the abundance of turtle, still the staple production of the group. Area, 225 sq. m.; pop. 2400, 2000 inhabiting the largest island, Grand Cayman.

Cazalla de la Sierra, a town of the Spanish province of Seville, 38 miles ENE. of Seville city, on the southern slope of the Sierra Morena, with important mines, and a trade in olives and wine. Pop. 8322.

Cazem bé, the title of an African prince, whose territory, also called Cazembé, extends between the Moero and Bangweolo lakes, west of 30° E. long. The people are industrious and skilful husbandmen and smiths, and carry on a brisk trade

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