Cazorla, a town of Andalusia, Spain, 40 miles ENE. of Jaën. Pop. 6651.

Ceano'thus. See RED ROOT.

Ceará, a state of Brazil, on the north coast, with an area of 40,240 sq. m., and about 950,000 inhabitants. The interior presents a succession of wooded hills and wide plateaus; cattle-raising is an important industry; cotton, coffee, and sugar are largely grown; and iron and gold are found. The capital, Ceará, had formerly only an open roadstead, but in 1888 extensive harbour improvements, with breakwater and viaduct, were nearing completion. It is the terminus of a railway to Baturité (90 miles), and has a large trade. Pop. 25,000.

Cebadilla. See SABADILLA.

Ce'bes, a Theban, disciple and friend of Socrates, and reputed author of the Pinax, or votive tablet, a philosophical dialogue, representing allegorically the temptations of this life, and teaching that True Learning can alone make for happiness. In spite of its pure Attic, and its truly Socratic tendency, modern criticism now assigns the work to the 2d century A.D. It was extremely popular in the middle ages, a sort of Pilgrim's Progress' indeed; and was translated into all the languages of Europe, as well as Arabic, which latter version, made possibly in the 9th century, is our sole record of the close of the dialogue. See Jerram's Cebetis Tabula (Oxf. Clar. Press, 1878). Cebu, or ZEBU, is one of the Philippine Islands (q.v.), the seventh in respect of area.

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Ce'bus (Gr., an ape' or 'monkey'), a genus of South American monkeys, characterised by a round head and short muzzle, a facial angle of about 60°, long thumbs, and a long prehensile tail entirely covered with hair. The body is covered with short, thick hair. Their voice is soft and pitiful. The species are numerous, all of very lively disposition and gregarious arboreal habits, living in trees. They feed chiefly on fruits, but also on insects, worms, and molluscs. Various species are often seen in zoological gardens and menageries. They are included under the popular designation Sapajou in its wider sense, and some of them are the monkeys to which this name is sometimes more strictly appropriated. The names Sajou and Sai or Cai are also given to some of them, and some are called Capuchin (q.v.) Monkeys. One of the most common species in Guiana is the Weeper Monkey, or Weeper Sapajou (C. apella). Some of the species are adorned with beards. The term Cebidae is often used as a family designation for all the broad-nosed New-World Monkeys (Platyrrhini) with prehensile tails, in contrast to the Pithecidæ, in which the tail is not so adapted. In this family are included the Howling Monkeys (Mycetes), the Spider Monkeys (Ateles), and other genera. See MONKEYS.

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Cecidomy'ia (Gr. kekidion, a gall-nut,' and myia, a fly' or 'gnat'), a genus of dipterous (twowinged) insects in the Tipularia (gnat and mosquito) division. They have beautiful, delicate, downy wings, which have three nervures, and are horizontal when at rest; antennæ as long as the body, with bead-like joints, and whorls of hairs at the joints; long legs, and the first joint of the tarsi very short. The species are numerous; nearly thirty in Britain, and sixty in Europe. All are of small size, but some of them are very important on account of the ravages which their minute maggots effect in grain-crops. C. cerealis, sometimes called the Barley Midge, a brownish-red fly with silvery

CECROPIA

wings, of which the maggot is vermilion coloured, is often very destructive to crops of barley and spelt in Germany. The little maggots live in families between the stalk and the sheath of the leaf, abstracting the juice of the plant.-The Wheat-fly (q.v.) and the Hessian Fly (q.v.) belong to this genus. Some of the species of Cecidomyia deposit their eggs on the young buds of trees, which the larvæ transform into galls.

economic importance, another Cecidomyia is, on While forms like the Hessian fly are of great account of its extraordinary mode of reproduction, of great scientific interest. According to Wagner, the these develop in winter into larvae. The larva, female lays her eggs under tree-bark or the like; still immature, become reproductive and parthenothe body-cavity, where the stimulus of fertilisation genetic. The ovaries rupture, the eggs fall into is somehow replaced, for the ova develop into larvæ. These eat their parent larva, and after finishing the viscera, leave the empty skin. The nemesis of reproduction overtakes them also, for within them again, though likewise only larvæ, a fresh batch of larvæ develops in similar fashion. After several generations of this immature and fatal reproduction, the final set of larvæ metamorphose in summer into sexual winged insects. See REPRODUCTION.

Cecil. See BURGHLEY and SALISBURY.

As

Cecilia, ST, the patroness of music, especially church music, is said to have suffered martyrdom in 230 A.D. Her heathen parents belonged to a noble Roman family, and betrothed their daughter, already a secret convert to Christianity, to a heathen youth named Valerian, who also was soon converted, and ere long suffered martyrdom together with his brother Tiberius. Cecilia, when commanded to sacrifice to idols, firmly refused, and was condemned to death. She was first thrown into a boiling bath, from which she emerged unhurt; next the executioner struck three blows upon her neck with a sword, then fled in horror. Three days later his victim died of her wounds, and received the martyr's crown. She was buried by Pope Urban in the catacombs of Callistus. early as the 5th century, there is mention of a church dedicated to St Cecilia at Rome; and in 821, by order of the Pope Paschal, her bones were deposited there. St Cecilia is regarded as the inventor of the organ, and in the Roman Catholic Church her festival-day, November 22, is celebrated with splendid music. Some of our greatest poets, as Chaucer, Dryden, and Pope, have laid poetic tributes on the shrine of St Cecilia-the greatest is Dryden's splendid ode. The most famous paintings of St Cecilia are those of Raphael at Bologna, Carlo Dolce in the Dresden Gallery, Domenichino in the Louvre, and Rubens in the Berlin Museum.-Another St Cecilia was born in Africa, and suffered martyrdom by starvation under Diocletian. Her festival falls on the 11th of February.

C.

Cecropia, a genus of Artocarpacea. peltata, the Trumpet-tree of the West Indies and South America, has a hollow stem and branches, exhibiting merely membraneous partitions at the nodes. The branches, these partitions being removed, are made into water-pipes and windinstruments. The wood is very light, and is used to make floats for nets, and by the Indians in kindling fires by friction against a harder piece of wood. The bast yields a cordage fibre, and the outer bark is astringent, the fruit resembles a raspberry, the buds furnish a potherb, while the juice hardens into caoutchouc. The leaves and fruit are largely consumed by sloths. The hollow stem is largely inhabited by ants.

duced into Britain is not exactly known. The distinction of introducing it is ascribed with most evidence of accuracy to Evelyn, who in his Sylva (published 1664) mentions having received cones and seeds from the mountains of Libanus,' while describing the beauties of the tree and speaking of its probable adaptability to the English climate. Aiton in Hortus Kewensis makes 1683 the date of planting the celebrated Chelsea cedars, which are assumed by some to have been the first trees planted in England. There are many fine speciinens of the Lebanon cedar in different parts of Britain, notably at Sion House, Goodwood, and Enfield in England, and at Hopetoun, Dalkeith, and Beaufort in Scotland.

The Deodar, or Himalayan Cedar (Cedrus Deodara), a tree held in great veneration by the Hindus, and of which the name is properly Devadara ('divine tree'), is common in the Himalaya mountains at elevations of 7000 to 12,000 feet, forming magnificent forests, and attaining a great size, a height sometimes of 150 feet, with a trunk 30 feet or more in circumference, an ample head, and spreading branches. It and the cedar of Algiers (C. Atlantica or Africana), found in the mountainous regions of the north of Africa, are but sub-species or varieties of the Cedrus Libani. The wood of the deodar is resinous, fragrant, compact, and very durable. It is susceptible of a high polish, and in its polished state has been compared to brown agate. Owing to the abundance of resin, laths of it burn like candles. Its turpentine is very fluid, and although coarse, is much used in India for medical purposes; and tar and pitch are obtained from the trunk. The deodar has now become very common as an ornamental tree in Britain, although few specimens have yet attained a very considerable size. -The name cedar is often given to other coniferous trees besides the true cedars. Thus, the Siberian Stone Pine, or Cembra Pine, is called the Siberian Cedar (see PINE), and a species of fir (Abies religiosa) is the Red Cedar of California (see FIR). A species of Cypress (q.v.) is known as White Cedar, and another as the Cedar of Goa. Several of the trees which bear the name cedar are species of Juniper (q.v.), among which are the Virginian Cedar, or Red Cedar of North America, and the Bermuda Cedar-which yield the cedar-wood used for pencils -the Spanish Cedar of the south of Europe, &c. The name cedar is even given to trees which have no resemblance to the true cedars except in the resinous quality of the wood; thus the Cedar-wood of Guiana is produced by Icica altissima, a tree of the natural order Amyridaceae (q.v.); the cedar of the West Indies (see next article) belongs to the natural order Cedrelaces; and the name Bastard Cedar is given in India to a tree of the natural order Byttneriaceæ (q.v.).

Cedar, BARBADOES, is strictly speaking Juniperus barbadensis; but a more important tree is that called Bastard Barbadoes Cedar (Cedrela odorata), a tree of the order Cedrelaceae (q.v.). Its wood has an agreeable fragrance, and being soft and light, it is used for canoes and for shingles. Havannah cigar-boxes are very generally made of it, and in France it is used in making black-lead pencils.

Cedar-bergen, a mountain-range in Cape Colony, stretches north and south on the east side of Olifant River Valley, in Clanwilliam division, and has plantations of Cape cedar (Widdringtonia juniperoides), which are now, however, being fast destroyed. This is the only locality where this species is found. Sneeuwkop (6335 feet) is the highest point of the range.

Cedar Bird. See WAXWING.

CEILING.

Cedar Creek is a river of Virginia, U.S., which gives name to a battle fought 19th October 1862, when the Federals under Sheridan defeated the Confederates under Early.

Cedar Rapids, a town of Linn county, Iowa, on the Red Cedar River, 79 miles SW. of Dubuque. large flour-mills, carriage and machine works, and It is an important railway centre, and has several breweries. Pop. (1860) 1830; (1890) 18,020.

Cedilla (Sp., Fr. cédille, It. zediglia; from zeta, the Greek name for z, because it has taken the place of z in such words as leczon, mod. leçon, a mark placed under the letter c (c), especially in French, where it is desired to give c the sound of s before the vowels a, o, u.

Cedrate. See CITRON.

Cedrelacea, a sub-order of Meliaceae (q.v.), all tropical or subtropical trees or shrubs, with pinnate leaves, mostly valuable for their timber-e.g. mahogany, satin-wood, toon, Barbadoes cedar, the yellow-wood of New South Wales, &c. The barks of some species are febrifugal. See MAHOGANY, CEDAR (BARBADOES), &c.

Cefalù, a town of Sicily, on the north coast, 40 miles ESE. of Palermo. It is situated at the foot of a lofty promontory (1235 feet), with old Greek and Saracenic remains. It has a cathedral, a port, and 12,714 inhabitants, chiefly engaged in marble-quarrying and fishing.

Ceglie, a town in Southern Italy, 21 miles NE. of Taranto. It has a trade in grain, oil, and fruit. Pop. 13,865.

Ceiling (Fr. ciel; Lat. cœlum, 'heaven '). This term seems to have been suggested by the use of arched coverings for churches, and even for rooms, which prevailed in the middle ages, and were frequently painted blue and decorated with stars. Arched ceilings among the Romans were known by the name of camera, and were formed by semicircular beams of wood, at small distances from each other, over which was placed a coating of lath and plaster. But the ceilings most commonly in use amongst the Romans were flat, the beams, as in modern times, having been at first visible, and afterwards covered with planks and plaster. Sometimes hollow spaces were left between the beams, which were frequently covered with gold and ivory, or paintings or 'patera-large flowers such, for instance, as are used in the panels of the vault of the Pantheon. The oldest flat ceiling in existence is believed to be that of Peterborough Cathedral. Like that at St Albans Abbey, it is made of wood. Ceilings of churches in the middle ages were generally painted and gilded in the most brilliant manner; and many existing ceilings still exhibit the traces of early decoration of this kind. In French churches the ceilings are generally vaulted, but in England they are more The older ceilings generally usually of wood. follow the line of the timbers of the roof, which, in the Early English and Decorated, are often arranged so as to give the shape of a barrel vault. In ceilings of this description there seldom are many ribs, often only a single one along the top. In the Perpendicular style, the ceiling often consists of a series of flat surfaces or cants, formed on the timbers of the roof. Though sometimes altogether destitute of ornament, they are more frequently enriched with ribs, dividing them into Square panels, with Bosses (q.v.) or flowers at the intersections. Wooden ceilings are sometimes formed in imitation of stone-groining, with ribs and bosses, examples of which will be found at York, Winchester, and Lincoln. In the Elizabethan age ceilings were generally of plaster, but they were ornamented with ribs having bosses or

In 1883 the pop. of Celebes with adjacent islands was given as 926, 132, inclusive of 6949 Chinese and 2110 Europeans, but probably exclusive of the pop. of the two inner peninsulas. The Bugis (see BONI) and Mangkassars of the south peninsula, tall, shapely, and comparatively fair, are the dominant native race, much disposed to trading and seafaring. The Alfuros,' a collective name for the other native tribes, are at a very low grade of culture. Celebes was first visited in 1525 by a Portuguese expedition from the Moluccas. In 1607 the Dutch began to trade with Celebes, and now claim the whole island, which they have divided into the residencies of Macassar and Menado, a third division round the north and west of the Gulf of Tolo being included in the residence of the Ternate. The total value of the exports in 1884 was £600,000, of which coffee formed nearly a half; and the imports in the same year, £465,714. The women of Celebes weave the sarang, or national garment, which, together with variegated mats, is largely exported. A 'high-road' skirts the coast of the south peninsula from Mandale, 30 miles N. of Macassar, to Balang-Nifra, on the Gulf of Boni; elsewhere are only ordinary roads and footpaths. The chief town is Macassar, with a sea-frontage of nearly 22 miles. Menado, the capital of Minahassa district, and seat of a Dutch resident, is described as the prettiest settlement in the whole of the Dutch East Indies, and has a pop. of 2500. See Lahure, L'ile de Célèbes (Paris, 1879).

Celery (Apium), a widely distributed genus of Umbelliferæ. The common celery (A. graveolens) is found wild in Britain and most parts of Europe, in ditches, brooks, &c., especially near the sea and in saline soils, and is acrid and uneatable. In cultivation, however, abundant nutrition has greatly mollified its properties, and two principal forms have arisen-one in which an abundant development of parenchyma has taken place in the leafstalks; the other in which it affects the root-while these again possess their sub-varieties. The former sort is the common celery of British gardens, where the familiar long blanched succulent stalks are produced by transplanting the seedlings into richly manured trenches, which are filled up as the plants grow, and finally raised into ridges over which little more than the tops of the leaves appear; and a supply is thus insured throughout the whole winter. The other form is the turnip-rooted celery, or celeriac, and is now largely cultivated on the Continent. Both forms are eaten uncooked alone, or in salads, or in soups, or as a boiled or stewed vegetable, and are pleasant and wholesome, although when used too freely or frequently they are diuretic and aphrodisiac. Some authorities identify celery, instead of the closely related Parsley (q.v.), as the Apium with which victors in the Isthmian and other games were crowned, and of

which the Greeks were also wont to twine their sepulchral garlands.

Celeste, MADAME, dancer, was born in Paris 6th August 1814 (by her own account), more probably three or four years earlier. A pupil at the Conservatoire, she early showed remarkable talent. She made her début in 1827 at New York, and during her residence in America married one Elliott, who died early. At Liverpool in 1830 she played Fenella in Masaniello; in 1831-33 she became extremely popular in London. Her second visit to America (1834-37) is said to have brought her £40,000. After her return she took part successively in the management of the Theatre Royal, Liverpool, and the Adelphi and Lyceum in London. Her imperfect English long confined her to non

CELIBACY

speaking parts. She retired from the stage in 1874, and died at Paris, 12th February 1882.

Celestine, a mineral bearing the same relation to Strontia (q.v.) that heavy spar bears to baryta. It is essentially sulphate of strontia, SrOSO3, with occasional admixture of sulphate of baryta, carbonate of lime, oxide of iron, &c., in small proportions. It much resembles heavy spar, but is not quite equal to it in specific gravity; is usually blue, often of a very beautiful indigo-blue; sometimes colourless, more rarely reddish or yellowish. Its crystallisation is rhombic, like that of heavy spar. Most beautiful specimens of crystallised celestine are found in Sicily. Celestine derives its name from its colour. It is the source from which nitrate of strontia, employed in the manufacture of fireworks, is derived.

Celestine was the name of five popes, the first of whom filled St Peter's chair in. 422-432 (see POPE). The most notable was the Neapolitan Peter di Morrone, who after a long life of ascetic Celestine V. in 1294, when he was nearly eighty severities was much against his will elected pope as years of age. He resigned his office after five months the great refusal,' for making which he is placed by Dante at the entrance of hell. He was imprisoned by his successor, Boniface VIII., and died in 1296. He was founder of the Celestines,

and was canonised in 1313.

Celestines, an order of hermits of St Damianus, founded by Peter di Morrone about 1254, and confirmed as a monkish order by Urban IV. in 1264 and by Gregory X. in 1274. They called themselves Celestines when their founder ascended the papal chair. They follow the rule of St Benedict, wear a white garment with black hood and scapulary, and live a purely contemplative life. In the 13th and 14th centuries the order spread rapidly through France, Italy, and Germany, but subsequently decayed, and is now almost extinct. The French Celestines were secularised by order of Pope Pius VI. in 1776-78; so also were the Neapolitan Celestines.

But

opposed to the first and strongest natural law (Gen. Celibacy (from celebs, 'unmarried'), a state garded in certain religious systems as a condition i. 28), has from a variety of causes come to be reof the most sublime self-sacrifice. The perpetual celibacy of the priests of Isis, and the chastity of the vestal virgins, are familiar instances. nowhere was this sentiment so strongly and widely manifested as among the millions devoted to philosophers and the natural tendency of mystics the religion of Buddha. The theories of oriental and led before long to the doctrine that virginity is did not fail to influence the early Christian churches, a state in itself more excellent and more holy than Roman Church at least, imposed celibacy upon all the married life, and to the discipline which, in the The Old Testament priests and sacred ministers. is remarkably free from any tendency to exalt celibacy above matrimony. But although texts may be quoted on either side, the germs of the doctrine in question may be discovered in the New Testament. St Paul affirms it to be good for a man not to touch a woman,' and wishes that all men were celibate like himself (1 Cor. vii. 1, 7). Christ himself speaks mysterious words in commendation of those who have made themselves eunuchs for the kingdom of heaven's sake;' and the Lamb is followed on Mount Zion by 144,000 virgins, first-fruits unto God and unto the Lamb' (Rev. xiv. 1-5).

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The apostolic writings, however, while they suggest the excellence of virginity in general, supply no ground for the law of clerical celibacy. In the first epistle to Timothy, the deacon as well as